425 

G79      Coplin- 
A  manual  of   prac< 
tical   hy.frinrie. 


MAR  5     1929 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L-l 


This  book  is  DUE  on   the   last  date  stamped  below 


DEC  3 

APR    i  - 
JUN  i 
OCT  1  8  1927 


9    1928 


-  1928 


2  9  1929 
«JUL  22 

1  8  1 


L-9-5m-7,'22 


APR  2  -  1942 


A   MANUAL 


PRACTICAL   HYGIENE 

DKSICNKI)    FOR 

SANITARY  AND  HEALTH  OFFICERS,  PRACTITIONERS, 
AND  STUDENTS  OF  MEDICINE. 

6"  3  cjlo  . 

W.   M.    L.  COPLIN,    M.  D., 

ADJUNCT    PROFESSOR    OF   HYGIENE,    DEMONSTRATOR    OF  PATHOLOGY,  AND   CURATOR    OF  THE   MUSEUM, 

JEFFERSON   MEDICAL  COLLEGE;    ADJUNCT  PROFESSOR  OF   PATHOLOGY   IN  THE   PHILADELPHIA 

POLYCLINIC     AND     COLLEGE     FOR     GRADUATES     IN     MEDICINE;     SURGEON    TO     ST. 

LATE    A.    A.     SURGEON,    U.    S.     MARINE  HOSPITAL    SERVICE; 


D  .    B  E  V  A  N  ,    M  .  D  . , 

INSTRUCTOR     IN     HYGIENE    AND    CLINICAL    MICROSCOPY,     JEFFRRSON     MEDICAL    COLLEGE;      BACTERI- 
OLOGIST TO  ST.   AGNES'  HOSPITAL,  PHILADELPHIA;    ASSISTANT  PATHOLOGIST,  PHILA- 
DELPHIA   HOSPITAL  ;     ASSISTANT    PATHOLOGIST,    PHILADELPHIA    POLY- 
CLINIC     AND     COLLEGE     FOR     GRADUATES     IN     MEDICINE. 


WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION    H Y 

H.   A.    HARE,   M.  D., 

PROFESSOR    OF    THERAPIU'TICS,    MATERIA    MED1CA,    AND    HYGIENE,    IN    JEFFERSON    MEDICAL    COLLEGE 

PHILADELPHIA. 


WITH    140    ILLUSTRATIONS, 

MANY    OF    WHICH    ARE    PRINTED    IN    COLORS. 

5T3U 

PHILADELPHIA: 
P.    BLAKISTON,    SON    £    CO 

IOI2  WALNUT  STREET. 
1897. 


COPYRIGHT,  1893,  BY  p-  BI.AKISTON,  SON  &  Co. 


P«r»»  or  WM    F.  FFLL  It  Co, 
1220-34    S«N%OM   8T, 


C73 


Dedication. 


TO    THE    LABORERS    AND    STUDENTS    IN    THE    FIELD 
OF    PREVENTIVE    MEDICINE,    BY 

THE  AUTHORS. 


PREFACE. 


The  great  importance  given  to  the  study  of  Preventive  Medi- 
cine, or  more  correctly  speaking,  "  The  Causes  of  Disease,"  has 
in  the  last  few  years  revolutionized  nearly  all  the  branches  of 
medicine,  and  Sanitary  Science  is  now  made  a  compulsory  study 
in  nearly  all  medical  schools.  With  these  points  in  view  the 
authors  of  this  manual  have  endeavored  to  prepare  a  text-book, 
the  first  complete  work  from  an  American  standpoint.  The  mi- 
crobic  causes  of  disease  and  the  methods  of  detecting  and  com- 
bating them  are  all  given  full  consideration.  The  various 
subjects,  Water,  Air,  Food,  Habitations,  etc.,  have  been  thor- 
oughly gone  into,  each  one  receiving  the  consideration  its 
importance  merits,  one  main  idea  being  carried  through  the 
whole,  /.  t\,  the  causes  of  disease,  tJicir  methods  of  ingress,  and  the 
available  means  for  their  prevention.  Each  subject  is  considered 
in  its  relation  to  disease  production,  and  the  method  of  prevention 
has  been  pointed  out.  It  has  been  our  desire  to  make  the  work 
a  practical  treatise,  with  a  minimum  of  theory  and  a  maximum 
of  applicable  fact.  Where  many  methods  of  doing  a  thing  are 
in  vogue,  the  writers  have  assumed  that  the  most  satisfactory 
one,  given  in  detail,  would  be  more  desirable  than  abridged  de- 
scriptions of  several. 

Every  attempt  has  been  made  to  fully  illustrate  each  section  ; 
illustrations  have  been  inserted  wherever  they  would  more  clearly 
elucidate  the  text.  A  large  number  of  these  illustrations  are  from 
special  drawings  made  by  Dr.  Bevan,and  while  of  artistic  value, 
are  scientifically  accurate.  These  are  to  a  large  extent  diagram- 
matic, our  experience  having  indicated  the  superiority  of  this 
class  of  illustrations.  The  source  of  those  pictures  that  are  not 
original  is  acknowledged  in  the  list  of  illustrations,  with  the 
exception  of  those  loaned  by  reputable  manufacturers  to  whom 
we  have  alreadv  acknowledged  our  indebtedness. 


VI  PREFACE. 

The  many  special  subjects  considered  in  this  volume  demanded 
much  expert  knowledge,  and  as  it  was  the  aim  of  the  authors  to 
make  the  book  as  accurate  as  possible,  they  have  consulted  with 
skilled  specialists  in  various  departments,  and  they  wish  to  ac- 
knowledge here  the  kindness  of  National,  State,  and  Municipal 
authorities  who  have  granted  valuable  aid,  and  to  thank  Mr.  Lock- 
ington  for  his  help  and  advice  in  those  sections  where  a  knowledge 
of  architecture  was  needed.  We  wish  also  to  thank  Mr.  W.  H. 
Smith,  sanitary  engineer,  for  valuable  aid  in  supplying  suitable 
illustrations  for  the  article  on  Heating  and  Ventilation,  and  Drs. 
Leffmann  and  Beam,  who  have  offered  us  the  advantage  of  their 
wide  experience  in  the  study  of  Food  Adulterations,  Water 
Analysis,  and  collateral  subjects.  \Ve  are  also  indebted  to  Prof. 
J.  W.  Holland  for  valuable  aid  in  certain  chemical  work. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  thank  the  Publishers  for  many  kind- 
nesses and  much  labor  in  bringing  the  volume  to  its  present 
condition  of  typographic  and  artistic  perfection. 

W.  M.  L.  COPLIN, 
PHILADELPHIA,  November  /,-,  1893.  D.   BEVAN. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  I. 
HYGIENE— HEALTH— CAUSE  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE. 

PAGR 

Divisions  of  Hygiene  in  relation  to  Disease  and  Disease  Prevention — Causes 
of  Disease — Inheritance,  Direct  and  Indirect — Inherited  Susceptibility 
— Immunity,  forms  of — Temperament — Age — Sex — Race — Customs — 
Habit — Diathesis — Environment — Ingest ive  Diseases — Contagion — In- 
fection— Bacteriology — Divisions  and  forms  of  Bacteria — Diseases  due 
to  Bacteria — Ptomaine  Poisoning — Animal  Parasites — Diseases  due  to 
Animal  Parasites— Quarantine — Isolation — Segregation— Quarantinable 
Diseases — Prevention  of  Specific  Diseases — Vaccination  or  Inoculation 
— Disinfectants — Deodorants — Methods  of  Securing  Disinfection  and 
Agents  to  be  used — Physiological,  Thermal,  and  Chemical  Disinfectants 
— Disinfection  of  Patients,  of  Hands,  of  Clothing,  of  Habitations,  of 
Mails,  of  Excreta,  of  the  Sick,  of  the  Dead, 25-81 

CHAPTER  II. 

INDIVIDUAL  OR  PERSONAL  HYGIENE. 

Hygiene  of  the  Infant,  including  Feeding,  Clothing,  Weaning,  Ratbing, 
Sleep,  Dentition — Hygiene  of  the  Child,  including  Exercise,  Clothing, 
Diet,  School,  Baths,  etc. —  Hygiene  of  Young  Adults  an*  Adults — 
Special  Hygiene — Eyes — Ear — Teeth — Hair — Feet — Sex 82-96 

CHAPTER  III. 
CLOTHING. 

Materials  of  which  Clothing  is  Constructed — Chemical  and  Microscopic 
Examination  of  Materials — Cotton — Linen — Wool — Silk — Jute — Skins 
of  Animals — Rubber — Clothing  for  Protection  Against  Cold,  for  Pro- 
tection Against  Heat,  for  Protection  against  Winds — For  Preventing 
Odor  Absorption — Objectionably  Constructed  Clothing, 97-104 

CHAPTER   IV. 

FOOD. 

Uses  of  Food — Kinds  of  Food — Animal  Foods — Milk — Diseases  Attributa 
ble  to  Milk — Milk  Examination,  for  Solids,  for  Cream — Milk  Preserva- 

vii 


Vl'li  TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

lives,  Coloring  Matters — Butter  and  Buttermilk  —  Butter  Substitutes — 
Examination  of  Butter — Cheese,  Quality,  Composition  and  Adulteration 
— Meat,  Forms  and  Composition  of — Meat  Inspection — Inspection  of  the 
Living  Animal  —  Diseases  Communicable  by  Meat — Animal  and  Vege- 
table Parasites  found  in  Meat — Inspection  of  Dead  Meat — Pickled  Meats 
— Salted  Meats — Sausage — Inspection  of  Poultry — Diseases  Communica- 
ble to  Man  from  Fowls,  Fish,  Oysters,  Mussels, — Potatoes,  Carrots,  Cab- 
bage,  Beets,  Turnips,  Peas  and  Beans — Fruits — Evaporated,  Tinned, 
Condensed  and  Preserved  Foods,  Sterilized  Foods,  Refrigerated  Foods — 
Tea — Coffee — Alcoholic  Beverages — Malt,  Liquors — Diet  as  modified  by 
Age,  Sex,  Climate,  Occupation,  Appetite,  Administration,  Cooking, 
Digestibility,  Idiosyncrasy — Quantity  of  Food  demanded — Calculation 
of  Food  Tables, 105-184 

CHAPTER  V. 

WATER. 

Sources  of  Water — Storage  of  Water — Distribution  of  Water — Dangers 
arising  from  Deficient  Water  Supply — Impure  Water  and  Diseases  due 
to  Impure  Water — Purification  of  Water  by  Sedimentation,  and  by  Fil- 
tration— Various  forms  of  Filters — Water  Examination  including  Collec- 
tion, Odor,  Color,  Transparency,  Solids,  Organic  Matter,  Chlorin, 
Poisonous  Metals,  Biologic  Examination,  Microscopic  Examination,  De- 
termination of  Source, 185-212 

CHAPTER  VI. 

AIR. 

Impurities  in  Air  and  their  Source — Organic  Matter  in  Air — Products  of 
Combustion  in  Air — Contamination  of  Air  by  Trades — Sewer  Air — Air 
of  Marshes— Emanations  from  Made  Ground — Carbon  Compounds  in 
Air — Diseases  Attributable  to  Atmospheric  Impurities — Air  Examina- 
tion— Solids,  Vapors  and  Gases  in  Air,  Detection  of — Biologic  Examina- 
tion of  Air, 213-256 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CLIMATE. 

Elements  of  which  Climate  is  Composed — Relation  of  Climate  to  Public 
Health — Climatologic  Observations — Apparatus  and  Methods  of  Re- 
cording— Climate  of  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Minnesota,  Kentucky, 
Washington,  (Jeorgia,  Texas,  California,  North  Carolina,  Nebraska, 
Illinois,  Nevada,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Soutli  Carolina,  North  Dakota, 
Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Tennessee,  I'tah,  New  Jersey,  Mary- 
land, New  Mexico,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  England  States,  .  237  j/S 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

SOIL. 
Telluric   Impurities    and   their    Relation  to    Public    Health — Purification  of 

Soils — Diseases  due  to  Impurities  in  Soils— Soil  Examination  —  Soil  air,  .     279   2<>i 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  JX 

CHAPTER   IX. 
HABITATIONS. 

rA<.i'. 

Selection  of  Site  and  Material  for  Construction — Methods  of  Constructing 
Foundations — Walls — Damp-proof  Courses — Roof  and  Roofing,  includ- 
ing Materials  and  Construction — Arrangement  and  Construction  of  I5a.se 
ments  or  Cellars — Sanitary  Arrangement  of  Kitchen  with  its  Plumbing, 
Heating  and  Cooking  Appurtenances — The  Construction  of  Stairs — 
Ventilation,  including  the  Factors  which  Demand  Ventilation — Methods 
for  Securing  Ventilation — The  Importance  of  Humidity  in  Ventilating 
Air — Selection  of  Air  for  Ventilating  Purposes — The  Degree  of  Im- 
purity in  Ventilation — The  Quantity  of  Air  to  be  Supplied — The  Ideal 
Methods  of  Ventilation — Heating  by  Radiation,  Conduction,  or  Con- 
vection— Direct  Radiation — Indirect  Radiation — Direct-indirect  Radia- 
tion— Open  Fire-places — Rifle  back  Fire-places — Floor-fed  Fire-places 
— Under- fed  Fire-places — Fire-places  with  Draft  Radiators — Water- 
back  Fire-places — Objections  to  Fire-places — Fire-places  for  Natural 
(las — Stoves — Objections  to  Stoves — Methods  for  Reducing  the  Ob- 
jectionable Features  of  Stove  Heating  to  a  Minimum — Best  Form  of 
Stoves — Fuel  for  Stoves  -  Furnaces — Arrangement  of  Furnaces — Air 
Conduits — Registers — Size  of  Registers  and  Calculation  of  Heat  Supply 
by  Furnaces — Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating — Theories  Involved  and 
Methods  by  which  Steam  and  Hot  Water  are  Applied  for  Heating  Pur- 
poses—  Heating  by  Steam  or  Hot  Water  Radiators — Direct  Methods — 
Indirect  Methods — Direct-indirect  Methods — Ventilation  and  Heating 
Combined — The  Exhaust  and  Plenum  Systems  of  Heating  and  Ventilat- 
ing— Thermostat  for  Regulating  Heating  Appliances — Estimation  of 
Heat  Supply — Quantity  Demanded — Method  for  Estimating  Quan- 
tity Supplied — Estimation  of  Humidity  in  Heating  and  Ventilating — 
Lighting,  Natural  and  Artificial — Water-closets — Bad  Forms  of— Sani- 
tary Forms  of — Flush  Tanks  and  Water-closet  Plumbing — Traps,  Sinks, 
Baths,  and  Lavatories,  Connection  and  Plumbing  of — Distribution  of 
House  Plumbing — Manholes — Drains  —  House  Sewage — Joints,  Prop- 
erly and  Improperly  Constructed  -  Regulations  which  govern  Modern 
Sanitary  Plumbing — Fire-plugs — Road  (Gutters — Street  Flushing — 
Sanitary  Inspection  of  Dwellings — Space  to  be  Allowed  for  Each 
House — Inspection  of  House  Water  Supply — House  Drains — Spouting 
and  Sewage  of  House — Nuisances — Inspection  of  Cellars,  of  Roofing, 
Rooms,  Closets,  Heating  Appurtenances — Example  of  a  Badly  Con- 
structed House — Space  to  be  Allowed  for  Each  Individual  in  Habita- 
tions,    292-387 

CHAPTER  X. 
SEWAGE. 

Sewage — Materials  of  which  Sewage  is  Composed — Garbage — Incineration 
of  Garbage — Final  Disposition  of  Sewage,  by  Sedimentation,  by  Preci- 
pitation, by  Filtration,  and  by  Disruption — Electrolysis  of  Sewage,  .  .  388-394 


X  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
DISPOSAL  OF   THE  DEAD. 

I'AGB 

Disposal  -of  the  Dead — Importance  of  Incineration — Burial  Grounds — 
Location  of  Burial  Sites — Arrangement  of  Graveyards — Proper  Construc- 
tion of  Graves — Coffins — Dangers  of  Embalming — Rules  and  Regula- 
tions which  should  Cover  Burial  Grounds — Burial  During  Epidemics 
and  on  the  Battle-field — Methods  for  Hastening  Disruption  of  the 
Body, 395-397 

CHAPTER  XII. 

TECIINIC. 

Microscope  and  Accessories — Jars  for  Preserving  and  Handling  Specimens 
— Bacteriologic  Technic — Culture  Media — Plating — Fractional  Plating 
— Counting  Colonies — Cultivation  of  Anaerobes — Staining,  Histologic 
and  Bacteriologic — Inoculation  Experiments — Examination  of  Sputum 
—  Blood  Examination — Examination  of  Feces — Microscopic  Examina- 
tion of  Meats  -Examination  of  Infectious  Materials  in  Skin  Diseases 
— Staining  of  the  Thrush  Fungus — Examination  for  Itch  Parasites — 
Leprosy —  Tetanus  — Pneumonia  —  Rhinoscleroma — Erysipelas — Gon- 
orrhea— Syphilis, 398-434 

APPENDIX. 

Metric  System — Barometer  Scales — Thermometers — Thermal  Disinfection, 

Table  of — Specifications  in  Blank, 435-441 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


KIG.  PACK 

1.  Saccharomycetes  Cerevisirc  (Original], 36 

2.  Monococci,  Diplococci,  Tetracocci,  and  Sarcina  (Original) 37 

3.  Streptococcus  Pyogenes  (Color)  (Original) 37 

4.  Ascococcus  (Color)  (Original), 38 

5.  Propagation  by  Fission  (Original), 39 

6.  Spore  Formation  (Original),      ...  39 

7.  Actinomyces  (Color)  (Original), 41 

8.  Bacillus  Anthracis  (Color)  (Original), 41 

9.  Spirillum  Cholera  Asiatica  (Color)  (Original), 42 

10.  Bacillus  of  Diphtheria  (Color)  (Original), 42 

11.  Streptococcus  Erysipelatis  (Color)  (Original), .42 

12.  Favus  (after  Flttgge), 43 

12  A.  Favus  from  Agar-agar  Culture  (Original), 43 

13.  Bacillus  Mallei  (Glanders)  (Color)   (Original), 43 

14.  Diplococcus  of  Gonorrhea  (Color)  (Original) 43 

15.  Bacillus  of  Leprosy  (Color)  (Original), 44 

16.  Diplococcus  Pneumonia  (Color)  (Original), 44 

17.  Spirillum  of  Relapsing  Fever  (Color)  (Original), 45 

18.  Saccharomycetes  (Oldium)  Albicans,  or  Thrush  Fungus  (Color)  (Original),  46 

19.  Micrococcus  Pyogenes  Aureus  (Color)  (Original), 46 

20.  Bacillus  Tetani  (Color)  (Original), 46 

21.  Microsporon  Furfur  (Original), 47 

22.  Bacillus  Tuberculosis  (Color)  (Original), .47 

23.  Bacillus  Typhosus  (Color)  (Original), 47 

24.  Distoma  Hepaticum  (after  Ltuckart), 49 

25.  Ascaris  Lumbricoides  and  Eggs  (Original),    .    .        50 

26.  Oxyuris  Vermicularis  (Original), 5° 

27.  Simple  Contrivance  for  Generating  Sulphurous  Acid  Gas  (Original),      .    .  71 

28.  Sectional  View  of  a  Dry-air  Sterilizer  (after  A'oc/i), 72 

29.  Arnold's  Steam  Sterilizer,  First  Form, 73 

30.  Arnold's  Steam  Sterilizer,  Second  Form, 73 

31.  Arnold's  Steam  Sterilizer,  Third  Form  (form  used  by  Boston  Health  Board),  74 

32.  Contact  Thermometer,  Mercurial  (Original),  .         75 

33.  Proper  Manner  of  Trimming  Finger-Nails  (  Original), 95 

34.  Cotton  Fibers  (Original), 98 

35.  Linen  Fibers  (Original),     .    .  98 

36.  Woolen  Fibers  (Original),  98 

37.  Silk  Fibers  (Original), 98 

XI 


XJi  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PIG.  PACK 

38.  Lactometers  (Original) 112 

39.  Creamometer  (Original), 113 

40.  Feser's  Lactoscope  {Original), 114 

41.  Ueimling  Patent  Milk  Test  Machine, 114 

42.  Accessories  for  Beimling  Patent  Milk  Test, ji6 

43.  Actinomyces  (Original), 135 

44.  Symptomatic  Anthrax  (Color)  (Original), 138 

45.  Brain  of  Lamb,  with  Tracts  of  Ccenurus  (after  Leitckart) .  149 

46.  Measly  Pork  (Original), 149 

47.  Cysticercus  Cellulosa;  (after  Leuckarl), 150 

48.  Tenia  Solium  (after  Lettckart), 150 

49.  Tenia  Mediocanellata  (Original), 151 

50.  Trichina  Spiralis  (Original), 151 

51.  Tenia  Echinococcus  (after  Leuckan),       152 

52.  Plan  of  Deep  Well  (Original) iSS 

53.  Model  of  Reservoir,  Slate  Lined  (Original), 189 

54.  Diagram  of  Filter  for  Public  Water  Supply  (Original), 195 

55.  Large  Domestic  Filter  (Original), .  196 

56  A.   Pasteur-Chamber! and  Filter,  attached  to  Spigot, 197 

5615.  Sectional  View  of  56  A  (Original), 197 

57.  Pasteur  Filter  for  Ice  Water, 197 

58.  Pa^teur-Chamberland  Filter,  Tourist  Pattern, 198 

59.  Simple  Filter  for  the  Alum  Process  (  Original), 199 

60.  Sand  Filter,  constructed  of  Two  Tomato  Cans  (Original], 199 

61.  Candlewick  Filter,  for  Laboratory  Use  (  Original), 211 

62.  Apparatus  for  Estimating  the  Amount  of  Oxygen  in  the  Air  by  Eudiometry 

(after  A'enwood), 225 

63.  One  form  of  Prof.  Wolpert's  Air  Tester, 228 

64.  Hesse's  Aeroscope  (Original), 235 

65.  Simple  form  of  Aeroscope  (Original), 236 

66.  Maximum  and  Minimum  Thermometers  and   Method  of  Setting  Them  Up 

(  U.  S.   Weather  Bureau), 243 

67.  Hydrometer  or  Thermoscope  (  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau)^ 244 

68.  P>arometer,  as  Supplied  by  Weather  Bureau  (U.  .V.   ll'eather  Bureau),     .    .  247 

69.  Barometer,  shorting  Arrangement  for  Regulating  the  Height  of  Mercury  in 

the  Cistern  (U.  S.   Weather  Bureau], 247 

70.  Vernier  Scale  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau), .  248 

"I.   Vernier  Scale  ( U.  S.  Weather  Bureau), .    .  248 

72.  Vernier  Scale  ( U.  S.  Weather  Bureau), ...     -248 

73.  Aneroid  Barometer  (  Lr.  S.  Weather  Bureau), 251 

74.  Cased  Aneroid  Barometer  with  Index  Hand,  as  usually  sold,     .    .  .  251 

75.  Rain  (iauge  Set  Up  (('.  S.   ll'eal/ter  Bureau) 252 

76.  Vertical  Seciion  of  Rain  (iauge  Set  Up  (('.  .V.   ll'mther  Bureau),     .     .         .  252 
"7-  Receiver  ami    Funnel  Conducting   Tube  of  Rain    (iauge   (('.  .s.    ll't-ather 

Btirriitt), 252 

78.    Horizontal  Section  of   Rain   (jnuge  (U.  .V.   ll'i-at/ifr  Bureau), 2^2 

~<).   Scale  of   Rain  (iauge  (LJ.  S.    Wealh--r  Bureau), 252 

So.   Wind  Vane  and  Ceiling  Dial  ((•'.  .V.   //(•<////<•/•  BIUKIIIJ, 254 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIT,.  I'AfiH 

81.  Robinson  Anemometer  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau}, 255 

82.  Brooks'  Drain  and  Subsoil  Pipe  (after  Park], 283 

83.  Drain  and  Subsoil  Pipe  Laid  Upon  Crushed  Stones  (Original], 283 

84.  Hesse's  Apparatus  for  Collecting  Ground  Air  (Original ), 290 

85.  F-nglish  or  Block  Bond  (Original,  Drawn  l>y  IV.  /'.  Lockington],  ....  300 

86.  Flemish  Bond  (Original,  Drawn  by  IV.  P.  Locking/on), 300 

87.  Damp-proof  Course  with  Ventilated  Air  Chamber  (Original,  Drawn  by  W. 

P.  Lockington), 301 

88.  Damp-proof  Course  (Original,  Drawn  by  W,  P.  Lockington], 302 

89.  Iron  Bonding  Tie  (Original,  Drawn  by  W.  P.  Lockington], 303 

90.  Section  of  Cornice  and  Rain  Gutter  or  Channel  ( Original,  Drawn  by  W. 

P.  Lockington], 306 

91.  Cross  Section  of  Rain  Gutter  (Original,  Drawn  by  W.  P.  Lockington],    .  306 

92.  Rain  Gutter,  Between  Two  Roofs,  with  Perforated  Iron  Guard  (Original, 

Drawn  by  IV.  P.  Lockington], 306 

93.  Rain   Conductor  Covered  with  Guard  or  Cap  (Orginal,  Drawn  by  W.  P. 

Lockington], 306 

Front  View  of  Kitchen  Dresser  (Original,  Drawn  by  IV.  P.  Lockington],  307 
Side  View  of  Kitchen  Dresser  (Original,  Drawn  by  IV.  P.  Lockington),  .  308 

96.  Fresh  Air  Register  (Original,  Drawn  by  W.  P.  Lockington], 319 

97.  Cross  Section  of  German  Stove  (Original,  Drawn  by  W.  P.  Lockington],  .  320 

98.  Plan  of  Cellar,  showing  Location  of  Heater,  etc.  (Original,  Drawn  by  IV. 

P.  Lockington], 321 

99.  Wall   Register,  showing   Relation  of  Parts    (Original,  Drawn  by  IV.  P. 

Lockington], 323 

100.  Hot- water  System, 324 

101.  Direct  indirect  Heating, 326 

102.  Indirect  Heating  by  Means  of  a  Floor  Register, 327 

103.  Indirect  Heating  by  Means  of  a  Wall  Register, 328 

104.  Indirect  Heating  by  Wall  Register  and  Fresh-air  Wall  Conduit  through 

Oblique  Radiator, , 329 

105.  Indirect  Radiation,  Radiator  for  Cellar  Use 330 

106.  Indirect  Radiation,  Base  of  Heater  Shown  in  Fig.  105, 331 

107.  Indirect  Radiator,  with  Fan  Attached,  for  Plenum  System  of  Heating,     .    .  332 

1 08.  Thermostat  for  Regulating  by  Electricity  the  Heat  Supply, 333 

109.  Dynamic  Anemometer, 336 

no.  Hygrophant, 337 

in.  Enclosed  Water-closet, 343 

112.  Back  of "  Sypho  "  Closet, .  344 

113.  Sectional  View  of  "  Sypho  "  Closet, 345 

114.  Showing  Interior  of  an  Ordinary  Flush  Tank,       .  349 

115.  Interior  View  of  Flush  Tank,  with  Discharge  Controlled  by  Time  Valve,  .  350 

1 1 6.  Interior  View  of  Double  Chamber  Flush  Tank,  ...  35 ' 

117.  '"Perfection"  Flushing  Pipe, 35- 

ilS.  Sewer-gas  and  Back-water  Trap, 354 

119.  Same  Trap  as  Above,  with  Vent  Connection  Attached,  .    .  •  354 

1 20.  Bath-tub  Trap, 355 

121.  Kitchen  Sink, 357 


XIV  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

122.  Glass-pipe  Plumbing,  showing  Plan  for  Rigid  Lines  (Original,  Drawn  by 

IV.  P.  Lockington), 359 

123.  Plan  of  Sewage  System  in  House  (Original],      373 

124.  Unsanitary  Mouse,  Ground  Plan  (Original,  Drawn  by  IV.  P.  Lockingtoti),  385 

125.  Beck's  Pathological  Microscope  Stand, 399 

126.  Abbe  Condenser,  with  Iris  Diaphragm, 400 

127.  Jelly  Jar  Used  for  Pathological  and  Anatomical  Specimens  and  Shipping 

Water. 404 

128.  Specimen  and  Stain  Jars,  with  Accurately  Fitting  Ground  Glass  Tops,     .    .  405 

129.  Blake  Bottle  Used  for  Plating, 408 

130.  Koch's  Plating  Apparatus,  as  Arranged  for  "  Setting  "  Agar  or  Gelatin  Plates 

(Redrawn  from  the  Original}, 409 

131.  Koch's  Plating  Apparatus,  Moist  Chamber  (Redrawn  from  the  Original),  409 

132.  Petri  Dish  (Original), 409 

133.  Sternberg's  Anaerobic  Culture  Tube  (Drawn  from  Tube  in  Use),   .    .    .    .410 

134.  Ameba  Coli  (after  Leuckart), 424 

135  a.   Megastoma  Entericum  (after  Grasse), 

b.  Cercomonas  Intestinalis  (after  Leuckart), 

c.  Cercomonas  Intestinalis  (after  Leuckart'], 424 

136.  Cercomonas  (after  Leuckart}, 424 

137.  The  American  Compressor, 426 

138.  Warren's  Trocar  and  Cannula, ...  427 


INTRODUCTION. 


When  the  undersigned  was  asked  to  prepare  an  introduction 
for  this  book,  which  at  that  time  was  only  in  outline,  he  was  glad 
to  consent,  knowing  that  the  practical  experience  and  original 
work  of  the  authors  fitted  them  to  prepare  a  manual  pregnant 
with  practical  statements  made  in  such  a  form  as  to  be  applicable 
in  every-day  life  by  the  physician  or  sanitarian.  The  fact  that 
numerous  works  on  hygiene  are  already  in  existence  proves  that 
the  importance  of  the  subject  is  universally  recognized,  yet  it  is 
unfortunately  true  that  in  many  instances  these  books  are  mere 
compilations  of  statistics  or  expositions  of  personal  and,  it  may 
be,  biased  views.  The  want  of  a  book  on  hygiene,  written  by  a 
pen  which  at  once  recognized  the  needs  of  the  physician, 
the  student,  and  the  public  official,  has  never  been  more  felt  than 
now,  and  the  authors  of  this  book  have  not  only  recognized  this 
fact,  but  occupy  official  positions  which  give  them  a  personal 
insight  into  all  the  needs  of  those  performing  sanitary  work.  As 
an  indication  of  the  scope  of  this  book,  particular  stress  may  be 
laid  upon  the  chapters  on  the  Causes  of  Diseases,  chapters 
which  are  necessarily  summaries  of  the  advances  made  in 
bacteriology  and  kindred  sciences  within  the  last  few  years. 
Naturally,  the  methods  of  prevention  of  infection  and  the 
destruction  of  the  products  of  disease  processes  are  equally 
carefully  considered,  and  in  close  relationship  to  this  subject  is 
the  description  of  sophisticated  and  other  forms  of  injurious 
food  stuffs.  The  diseases  of  animals  which  are  transmissible  to 
man  are  also  studied  and  original  summaries  of  the  latest  dis- 
covered facts  in  this  connection  are  presented,  after  thorough 
sifting  of  the  uncertain  statements  from  those  which  are  reliable. 

A  grave  deficiency  in  our  medical  learning  has  been  the 
absence  of  reliable  information  about  the  various  climates  of  the 
United  States.  Too  often  the  climatologic  reports  are  biased 

xv 


xvi  INTRODUCTION. 

by  the  personal  interest  of  the  author  in  his  own  region,  and  the 
American  physician  is  often  at  a  loss  where  to  send  his  patients 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  recognition  of  the  importance 
of  this  subject  has  resulted  in  a  careful  analysis  of  all  scientific 
material  concerning  this  matter,  and  has  presented  the  profession 
with  the  information  it  needs,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  it. 

One  of  the  slurs  cast  upon  hygiene  as  a  study  of  the  day  has 
been  that  very  often  the  recommendations  of  the  authors  are 
only  founded  on  theory,  and  not  practically  useful.  It  is  difficult 
for  the  mind  trained  to  scientific  research  to  meet  the  objections 
of  practical  builders  and  architects,  and  the  authors  have  there* 
fore  put  their  information  in  such  a  form  as  to  be  practically 
valuable  by  submitting  all  architectural  points  to  an  expert 
builder  and  architect.  Closely  allied  to  this  branch  of  the  subject 
is  that  of  habitations  in  relation  to  site  and  building  materials,  and 
the  chapter  on  heating  is  necessarily  a  careful  product  of  scientific 
deduction  and  practical  experience. 

To  the  physician  who  delights  in  the  addition  of  truly  original 
matter  to  our  store  of  information  this  book  is  a  pleasant  one 
to  read,  for  other  reasons  than  those  already  named,  for  it  is  illus- 
trated by  original  illustrations  in  many  instances,  illustrations 
made  by  the  pencil  of  Dr.  Bevan  from  the  results  obtained  by 
the  perfect  technique  of  the  authors. 

Heretofore  the  busy  practitioner  has  often  neglected  hygiene, 
in  its  relation  to  private  life,  because  the  reliable  books  were, 
most  of  them,  based  on  military  needs.  The  architect  has  found 
that  too  often  the  stated  scientific  facts  clashed  with  the  utility 
of  his  building,  and,  as  a  result,  in  many  instances  serious 
hygienic  sins  were  committed.  It  is  to  meet  such  cases  that 
this  book  was  planned  and  written,  and  that  its  objects  have 
been  accomplished  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  is  wise 
enough  to  study  this  important  branch  of  knowledge  in  its 
pages. 

II.    A.     IlAKK. 


A   MANUAL 

OK 

PRACTICAL  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HYGIENE— HEALTH— CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION  OF   DISEASE. 

There  are  two  possible  methods  by  which  hygiene  may  be 
applied,  or,  it  might  be  better  to  say,  two  views  as  to  its  appli- 
cation :  ist.  The  maintenance  of- health.  2d.  The  prevention  of 
disease. 

ist.  The  Maintenance  of  Health. 

By  health  we  mean  that  condition  of  the  cellular  elements,  of 
organs  and  tissues,  in  which  their  functions  are  performed  in  a 
normal  manner.  That  is  to  say,  we  have  neither  reduction  nor 
increase,  nor  perversion  of  function  beyond  certain  limits  within 
which,  for  any  given  individual,  we  may  consider  normal.  It 
may  be  largely  the  object  of  hygiene  to  retain  cellular  activity 
entirely  within  this  limit,  but  more  frequently  the  physician  is 
called  upon  to  prevent  disease,  and  secondarily  to  maintain 
health.  The  first  proposition  is  manifestly  the  more  broad,  as  it 
of  necessity  embraces  the  second. 

The  laws  to  be  laid  down  for  the  maintenance  of  health  are 
obviously  so  broad  as  to  cover  encyclopedic  dimensions,  and 
besides,  have  such  widely  varying  application,  under  different 
circumstances  and  for  individuals  in  particular,  that  any  attempt 
at  formulation  must  prove  futile.  That  which  would  retain  the 
normal  activity  of  Mr.  B.  would  render  the  life  of  Mr.  A.  quite 
miserable.  Thus  we  see  that  the  rules  of  health  are  arbitrary 
and  are  determined,  in  any  given  case,  by  personal  idiosyn- 
cracy.  It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  promulgate  any  definite 
rules  which  may  be  universally  applicable.  While  this  is 
unquestionably  true  in  a  general  way,  when  we  come  to  the 
prevention  of  disease  more  definite  knowledge  will  be  demanded, 


26  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

and  in  order  to  comprehend  and  apply  preventive  measures 
the  sanitarian  should  understand  the  causes  of  disease  and  the 
mutual  relation  subsisting  between  cause,  effect,  and  result.  A 
digression  in  that  direction  will,  therefore,  be  pardonable. 

Prof.  Longstreth  has  very  fitly  put  the  relation  of  health  to 
disease  and  its  concomitant  processes  in  a  comparison  to  the 
picture  of  peace  and  war.  In  peace  we  have  certain  individuals 
either  working  alone  or  in  aggregations,  attaining  definite  results 
in  one  or  more  directions.  They  employ  means  often  identical, 
varying  only  in  their  application,  but  in  this  way  altering  in 
important  features  the  result  attained.  Then  comes  the  cause 
for  war.  It  may  be  apparent  in  some  international  controversy 
over  matters  of  importance  and  far-reaching  consequence,  or  it 
may  be  sufficiently  indefinite  to  be  styled  petty,  but,  be  that  as 
it  may,  it  is  sufficient.  This  represents  in  our  comparison  the 
cause  of  disease.  Then  follows  the  perversion  of  individuals 
from  their  normal  occupation  into  a  new  pursuit,  that  of  a  sol- 
dier, and  with  this  comes  the  war.  The  same  individual,  a  unit 
in  peace,  becomes  a  unit  in  war,  and  the  materials  utilized  in 
peace  are  now  converted  into  commodities  of  war.  Then  fol- 
low the  battles,  the  long  marches,  the  destruction  of  much 
found  useful  during  peace,  all  this  leaving  behind  a  ruin  more 
or  less  complete,  which  may  or  may  not  be  converted  again  to 
usefulness  in  the  peace  which  is  to  follow.  Thus  the  picture  is 
complete,  disease  being  the  war,  the  altered  tissues  and  per- 
verted structures  left  behind  the  results,  both  immediate  and 
remote,  differing  only  in  the  ability  of  reconstruction,  in  both 
cases  there  being  much  which  the  wisest  and  ablest  efforts  can 
never  replace. 

The  pathologist  has  to  consider  and  deal  with  the  elements 
engaged  in  war;  the  sanitarian  occupies  the  position  of  medi- 
ator; his  effort  is  to  reconcile,  to  prevent,  to  ward  off,  to 
compromise  with,  and  to  combat  what  we  may  term  the  inter- 
national difficulties  between  cell  and  cell,  between  individual  and 
environment,  climate,  occupation,  and  all  the  concomitants, 
which  we  shall  be  pleased  to  designate  as  the  causes  ot  disease. 

It  is  not,  in  our  opinion,  possible  that  we  should  be  able  to 
comprehend  and  accomplish  hygic-nic  victories  without  thor- 
oughly understanding  at  least  the  fundamental  principles  which 


TI1K    CAUSES    OF    DISEASE.  2/ 

underlie  the  etiology  of  disease;  in  other  words.it  would  be 
useless,  if  not  impossible,  to  prevent  the  condition  without  know- 
ing the  cause.  For  this  reason,  we  will  now  proceed  to  consider 
more  or  less  briefly  the  prominent  factors  which  induce,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  disease.  Great  care  must  be  used,  and  it 
is  not  at  all  times  possible  to  prevent  confusion  of  cause  with 
result.  Thus,  we  are  extremely  likely  to  associate  the  pitting 
which  follows  smallpox  with  the  disease  itself.  Still,  there  is 
no  reason  whatever  why  the  pitted  skin  should  not  be  in  every 
respect  normal  except  in  appearance.  The  tendency  of  the 
human  mind  to  regard  as  normal  those  things  which  look 
normal  must  be  entirely  disregarded  in  the  consideration  of 
hygiene,  for  while  we  are  to  utilize  the  senses  to  a  large  degree, 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  functions,  which  constitute  the 
processes  of  life,  are  to  be  our  guides  in  the  maintenance  of 
health. 

THE   CAUSES   OF   DISEASE. 

Disease  may  be  said  to  occur  as  the  result  of  (a)  inheritance, 
(b]  a  definite  exciting  element,  usually  considered  the  exciting 
cause,  more  or  less  modified  in  effect  by  certain  ill-defined 
conditions  known  as  (c]  predisposing  causes,  (a)  Inheritance,  as 
usually  considered — and  quite  properly, — embraces  two  distinct 
conditions : — 

(1)  Direct  Inheritance  is  the  introduction  of  matcrics  uwrbi 
co-instantaneous  with  impregnation  of  the  ovum.     As  the  best 
example  which    we    possess  of  this    condition,  syphilis  stands 
pre-eminent,  although  not  alone.     If  either  parent  have  constitu- 
tional syphilis,  it  is  possible  for  the  offspring  to  be  infected  with 
the  disease  ab  initio,  thus  constituting  positive  inheritance. 

(2)  Transmission    of    Tissue,   or    functional    peculiarity,   is 
another  manifestation    of    inheritance.      We    have    transmitted 
normal  conditions,  such  as  physiognomy,  color  of  hair,  eyes, 
etc. ;    also   abnormal    structures,  such    as   webbed    or    supernu- 
merary fingers  and  toes,  all  going  to  prove  the  direct  transmis- 
sion of  tissue    peculiarity   from    parent   to   offspring.      Equally 
tenable  is  the  view  that  tissue  may  be  transmitted    unusually 
susceptible,  or  the  reverse,  to  the  inception  of  given  diseases  ; 
the  former    condition    is    known    as    inherited  susceptibility^  the 


28  HEALTH — CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

latter  as  inherited  immunity.  As  the  best  example  which  we 
possess  of  inherited  susceptibility,  or  transmitted  soil,  tubercu- 
losis stands  most  prominent ;  in  tubercular  families,  generation 
after  generation,  although  born  apparently  healthy,  contracts  the 
disease  with  an  almost  unvarying  regularity.  Another  obser- 
vation which  strongly  sustains  this  theory  is,  where  in  a  family 
one  parent  has  phthisis,  the  children  inheriting  the  personal 
peculiarities  of  this  parent  seldom  escape  the  scourge,  while  the 
children  resembling  the  unaffected  parent  are  more  likely  to 
escape.  Examples  of  inherited  immunity  are  less  common. 
Families  are,  however,  known  in  which  certain  contagious  dis- 
eases of  childhood,  e.g.,  scarlet  fever,  have  never  occurred, 
although  abundant  opportunity  for  contagion  has  been  afforded. 
While  considering  immunity,  we  may  refer  to  acquired  immu- 
nity, a  condition  in  which  the  resistance  to  a  given  disease  is 
the  product  of  changes  manifested  after  the  impregnation  of  the 
ovum.  Thus,  a  child  may  possess  immunity  to  smallpox  by 
reason  of  its  having  acquired  the  disease  in  utero  ;  or  individual 
diseases  induce  immunity  by  a  single  attack,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  exanthemata.  Induced  immunity  will  be  considered 
later. 

Temperament. — Associated  with  this  inheritance  of  soil  and 
the  t/ansmission  from  parent  to  offspring  of  certain  conditions, 
apparently  pertaining  to  the  tissues  and  predisposing  to  disease, 
usually  of  a  definite  character,  as  tuberculosis,  there  may  be  an 
inheritance  of  constitution  which  carries  with  it  a  tendency  to 
the  development  of  one  or  more  diseases  belonging  to  a  class 
or  group  which  are  often  widely  different  in  many  important 
factors.  Thus,  the  "  nervous  "  or  "  neurotic  "  temperament 
transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another,  and  so  on  through 
a  long  list  of  diseases,  not  infrequently  referred  to  as  nervous 
or  neurotic  in  origin.  This  form  of  transmitted  predisposition 
differs  but  little  from  what  is  known  as  diathesis,  examples  of 
which  we  have  in  the  gouty  or  rheumatic  tendencies  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation,  and  manifesting  them- 
selves upon  the  slightest  provocation.  The  student  of  hygiene 
does  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  with  the  inheritance  comes,  at 
least  in  many  cases,  transmission,  in  quite  a  different  manner,  of 
habit  and  environment,  actively  predisposing  elements.  Under 


TEMPERAMENT,    PREDISPOSITION.  2(} 

this  head  there  will  be  a  general  as  well  as  a  special  predisposi- 
tion. The  habits  of  certain  families  in  which  gout  is  prominent, 
if  applied  to  others  in  which  the  disease  may  be  not  only  rare, 
but  absent,  would  rapidly  lead  to  the  development  of  the 
malady.  Thus,  the  physician  will  see  that,  in  contesting  the 
diathesis,  consideration  of  environment  and  habit  may  afford 
him  ample  opportunity  for  a  broad  application  of  preventive 
medicine. 

The  prevention  of  inheritance,  when  malicious  in  its  ten- 
dencies, lies,  of  course,  in  the  proper  mating  of  the  human 
family,  a  remedy  the  application  of  which  is  attended  with  the 
greatest  difficulties.  It  is,  however,  none  the  less  our  duty  to 
direct  the  proper  course  in  the  face  of  an  almost  absolute 
knowledge  of  a  refusal  to  heed  the  well-meant  advice.  In  the 
absence  of  our  ability  to  overcome  the  source  we  had  best 
direct  the  stream,  and  by  so  doing  offer  a  faint  hope  of  securing 
immunity.  The  family  with  tubercular  tendencies  should  choose 
their  vocations  and  climate  with  the  greatest  care  ;  the  habits  of 
the  gouty  should  be  directed  in  proper  channels ;  and  the  food, 
exercise,  and  clothing  of  both  be  under  constant  supervision. 
Inherited  diseases  demand  the  same  general  procedures  as 
acquired  diseases. 

Other  important  features  in  the  predisposition  to  disease  are  : 
Agt\  sc.i;  race,  customs  or  liabits,  previous  attacks  of  disease  (to 
be  sharply  differentiated  from  the  sequelae),  external  conditions, 
heat  and  moisture,  climate,  etc.,  which  for  the  most  part  are  rarely 
sufficiently  alterable  to  deserve  our  notice — in  other  words,  they 
are  out  of  the  domain  of  applicable  hygiene.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  marked  tendencies  to  disease  which  manifest  them- 
selves, for  the  most  part,  in  the  presence  of  two  causes,  either  of 
which  maybe  considered  as  a  predisposing  element.  Thus  it  is 
well  known  that  the  extremes  of  life,  the  very  old  and  the  very 
young,  arc  pre-eminently  prone  to  inflammatory  processes  affect- 
ing the  mucous  membranes,  and  so  it  becomes  a  duty  to 
remove,  as  far  as  possible,  other  elements  usually  associated  with 
such  lesions — for  example,  extremes  of  temperature,  exposure, 
improper  food,  etc. 

There  are  certain  functional  predispositions  ;  especially  is  this 
true  of  surgical  diseases;  thus,  the  very  prominence  of  the  nasal 


3O  HEALTH — CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

bone  and  mamma;  make  them  liable  to  injury  and  its  results.  In 
medicine,  the  continual  filtering  process  of  air,  at  varying  tem- 
peratures and  with  disease-producing  materials  in  suspension, 
going  on  in  the  lungs  affords,  without  a  doubt,  ample  explanation 
for  the  prevalence  of  pulmonary  disorders. 

Occupation  is  often  actively  predisposing.  Not  only  is  occu- 
pation a  predisposing  cause,  but  the  environment  with  which  it  is 
associated  renders  the  induction  of  a  given  disease  almost  an  ab- 
solute certainty.  The  coal-miner,  the  scissors-  and  knife-grinder, 
stone-cutter,  and  marble-dresser,  are  all  subject,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  to  the  invasion  of  the  artisan's  phthisis.  If  there  be 
that  element  of  predisposition  which  we  have  classified  as  a 
tubercular  proclivity,  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  developed  a 
tubercular  process  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  individual  who  pos- 
sesses a  normal  or  increased  resistance  to  tubercular  invasion 
suffers  from  that  form  of  artisan's  phthisis  usually  considered  as 
fibroid  or  interstitial  pneumonia.  Another  case  in  which  the 
poison  enters  from  without,  and  which  will  be  classed  further  on 
as  among  the  ingestive  disorders,  largely  due  to  occupation,  is 
lead  poisoning,  and  this  differs  only  in  the  metal  from  the  other 
forms  of  metal  toxemia  so  constantly  observed.  So  that  these 
may  be  considered  as  ingestive  causes  rather  than  those  purely 
due  to  occupation,  the  occupation  merely  being  the  means  or 
method  by  which  the  ingestive  process  takes  place.  Although 
anthrax  is  a  specific  disease  of  microbic  origin,  which  we  shall 
consider  later  on,  certain  forms  of  it  come  under  the  head  of 
diseases  in  which  the  occupation  is  an  actual  predisposing  cause. 
Thus  it  has  been  known  as  wool-sorter's  disease,  on  account  of 
the  frequency  with  which  the  handlers  of  hides  and  wool  are 
attacked  by  the  disease. 

Previous  attacks  of  disease  predispose,  in  the  large  majority 
of  cases,  to  recurrence  of  the  same  disorder.  While  this  is 
usually  the  case,  it  is  not  by  any  means  always  true;  for 
example,  we  rarely  escape  with  a  single  attack  of  acute  articular 
rheumatism,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  one  rarely  suffers  from  two 
attacks  of  any  of  the  exanthemata.  Thus  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  previous  attacks  of  disease  may  produce  that  form  of 
immunity  known  as  acquired,  or  may  predispose  the  individual 
to  a  second  attack.  One  disease  may  be  predisposing  to 


INGESTIVE    DISEASES.  3! 

another ;  as  an  example  of  this  we  have  diabetic  gangrene  and 
suppurative  processes  which  not  infrequently  accompany  dia- 
betes. It  is  also  equally  true  that  a  patient  suffering  from  a 
catarrhal  condition  of  the  lungs  may — indeed,  is  extremely  likely 
to — become  infected  by  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  Thus  the 
writers  have  observed  a  case  of  chronic  catarrhal  pneumonia, 
with  absence  of  any  bacilli  or  lung  tissue  in  the  sputum, 
develop  both  after  six  weeks'  residence  in  a  hospital  in  which, 
unfortunately,  the  bed  occupied  by  the  patient  was  immediately 
adjacent  to  a  case  of  tuberculosis.  So  great  is  this  predisposi- 
tion of  one  disease  to  the  development  of  another  that  the  life 
insurance  companies  regard  such  risks  as  undesirable.  The 
prevention  of  diseases  due  to  occupation  lies  in  the  immediate 
removal  of  the  cause,  and  wherever  feasible  the  same  applies 
for  the  prevention  of  any  disease  which  follows  consecutively 
upon  another. 

In  diseases  where  ingress  to  the  system  occurs  through  food, 
that  is  to  say,  swallowed,  we  speak  of  the  process  as  ingcstion, 
and  such  diseases  are  known  as  ingestirc  diseases.  Prominent 
among  the  ingestive  causes  of  disease  we  have  improper  diet, 
intemperance,  and  the  varying  forms  of  what  we  are  pleased  to 
call  poisoning.  The  character  of  these  poisons  varies  to  an 
enormous  degree,  and  include  not  only  the  preformed  poisons, 
such  as  arsenic,  for  example,  but  materials  whose  toxic  activity 
may  be  dependent  upon  subsequent  changes.  Thus  every  one 
will  be  free  to  admit  that  starchy  foods  are  not  actively  poison- 
ous in  their  action  ;  however,  by  long  use  they  set  up  condi- 
tions in  the  alimentary  canal  which  vary  but  little  from  acute 
conditions  brought  on  by  the  ingestion  of  well-known  poisonous 
bodies.  All  forms  of  intemperance  are  injurious,  alcoholic 
being  the  more  grave  merely  because  it  is  poisonous  from  the 
beginning.  There  are  abundant  reasons  for  believing,  from  a 
physiological  standpoint,  that  alcohol  is  a  food  ;  this  does  not, 
however,  offer  the  least  excuse  for  intemperance  in  that  direc- 
tion, as  when  used  in  excess  it  no  longer  can  be  utilized  by  the 
tissues  as  nutrition,  but  immediately  asserts  its  toxic  activity. 
As  already  referred  to,  metallic  poisoning  may  be  classed  either 
as  ingestive  or  as  due  to  occupation.  Among  the  conditions 
ingestive  in  origin  we  have  helminthiasis  and  internal  parasitic 


32  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

diseases  in  general.  These,  of  course,  cover  only  those  diseases 
parasitic  in  origin  where  ingress  is  secured  through  the  ali- 
mentary canal. 

Among  the  exciting  causes  of  disease  we  have  most  prom- 
inently brought  forward  mechanical  causes,  chemical  causes, 
thermal  causes,  and  the  introduction  of  specific  morbific  agents 
from  without.  This  has  led  some  writers  to  consider  causes  as 
exopathic,  that  is,  from  without,  and  autopathic,  that  is,  induced 
purely  from  within.  This  classification  is,  as  must  be  all  other 
classifications,  unsatisfactory.  It,  however,  presents  no  advan- 
tages and  many  disadvantages.  The  mechanical  causes  include, 
for  the  most  part,  surgical  diseases  only,  as  traumatism,  etc. 
The  prevention  of  these  is  not  within  the  domain  of  hy- 
giene. , 

The  chemical  causes  of  disease  have  been,  within  the  past  few 
years,  entirely  restricted  to  the  action  of  chemical  bodies  upon 
the  organism  ;  that  is,  bodies  externally  applied  or  introduced 
purely  from  without.  It  has,  however,  been  shown  that  under 
varying  conditions  there  may  be  developed  within  the  organism 
toxic  agents  in  many  instances  more  poisonous  than  forms 
usually  introduced  from  without. 

Under  the  division  of  thermal  exciting  causes,  we  have  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  leading  to  actual  necrotic  processes, 
thus  bringing  them  within  the  domain  of  the  surgeon.  Again, 
there  are  certain  diseases  in  which  heat  and  cold  play  more 
important  parts.  Thus,  the  diseases  of  the  mucous  membrane 
which  are  brought  about  directly  through  the  influence  of  heat 
and  cold  modified  in  their  application  ;  if  the  cutaneous  circula- 
tion be  extremely  active,  and  the  temperature  reasonably  high, 
a  sudden  change  to  low  temperature  leads  to  rapid  contraction 
of  the  superficial  capillaries  and  a  determination  of  the  blood  to 
the  viscera  ;  later,  these  organs  suffering  in  a  direct  proportion 
to  the  intensity  of  the  congestion.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but 
what  this  is,  occasionally,  the  mechanism  of  the  diarrhea,  dysen- 
tery, and  other  catarrhal  conditions  so  frequently  observed  in 
soldiers  and  in  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  climates. 

Temperature  may  play  an  important  part  in  the  causation  ot 
disease.  Thus,  heat  stroke  and  heat  exhaustion  are  due  to  the 
influence  of  elevated  temperature.  It  would  also  seem  that 


CONTAGION.  33 

sudden  change  of  temperature  is  equally  important.  Humidity 
alone  or  combined  with  temperature  is  often  a  predisposing 
factor.  Modified  air  pressure,  above  or  below  that  to  which  the 
individual  may  be  accustomed,  not  only  predisposes  to  disease, 
but  gives  rise  to  definite  processes,  one  of  which  receives  its 
name  from  the  caisson,  which  has  of  late  brought  the  manifesta- 
tions prominently  forward.  Increased  air  pressure  docs  not 
seem  to  be  so  prominently  a  cause  of  morbid  changes  as  does 
diminished  barometric  weight.  This  is  evinced  more  actively 
when  the  change  is  rapid,  as  is  shown  in  caisson  disease,  in 
which  no  symptoms  manifest  themselves  until  the  withdrawal 
of  the  compressed  air,  or  the  individual  moves  into  a  more 
rarefied  atmosphere,  when  the  disease  suddenly  develops.  As 
the  effects  of  altitude  are  largely  due  to  the  rarefied  condition 
of  the  upper  layers  of  the  atmosphere,  rapid  changes  give  rise 
to  alteration  in  function,  just  as  does  removal  from  the  caisson. 
It  has  become  apparent,  therefore,  why  mountain  excursions  not 
infrequently  are  productive  of  marked  disturbance  in  individu- 
als suffering  from  pulmonary  or  cardiac  disease. 

Among  the  most  prominent  exciting  causes  of  disease  is  to  be 
considered  contagion,  by  which  we  mean  the  transmission  of  dis- 
ease from  one  individual  to  another,  either  direct,  as  by  actual 
contact,  or  indirect,  as  through  air,  clothing,  dejecta,  etc.  Con- 
tagion and  infection  are  used  for  the  most  part  synonymously, 
and  the  confusion  which  has  arisen  over  their  use  is  most  pro- 
found. Although  various  attempts  have  been  made  since  the 
discovery  of  the  causes  of  many  diseases  to  draw  a  sharp  line 
between  contagion  and  infection,  none  of  the  propositions  are 
beyond  criticism.  The  two  classes  of  disease  overlap  each 
other,  and  the  more  fully  we  comprehend  the  cause  of  disease 
the  greater  becomes  the  difficulty  when  attempts  are  made  to 
divide  diseases  into  two  groups,  the  contagious  and  the  infec- 
tious. At  the  present  time  malaria  seems  to  afford  the  best 
example  that  we  possess  of  infection,  and,  if  we  may  reason  from 
our  knowledge  of  that  malady,  we  are  led  to  consider  it  as  a 
low  order  of  contagion.  That  is  to  say,  infection  depends  upon 
a  specific  agent,  as  does  contagion  ;  in  the  former,  however,  the 
vulnerability  of  the  individual  must  be  increased  before  the 
morbific  agent  can  develop  its  specific  activity.  The  matter  is 


34  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

not  one  of  sufficient  importance  to  deserve  all  the  cavil  which  it 
has  brought  about. 

The  causes  of  contagion,  or,  rather,  the  material  which  is  trans- 
mitted from  case  to  case,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  and 
has  afforded  abundant  ground  for  disputes,  many  of  which  are 
now  historical.  There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  all  contagious 
and  infectious  diseases  depend  upon  some  constant  element  in 
each  individual  disease.  This  agent  never  changes  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases,  while  in  the  small  minority  it  would  seem  that 
the  infectious  material  could  produce  more  conditions  than  one,  if 
we  study  it  from  a  clinical  standpoint  alone.  Thus  the  strepto- 
coccus pyogenes  is  presumed  to  cause  erysipelas  as  well  as  sup- 
puration, and  possibly  puerperal  fever.  These  exceptions  may, 
however,  be  more  apparent  than  real,  a  little  knowledge  upon 
etiology  and  further  investigation  into  the  morphology  of  some 
of  these  organisms,  with  more  thorough  observations  in  path- 
ology, may  elucidate  some  of  these  apparent  contradictions. 
Exceptions  are  rare,  and  we  may  safely  decide  that  the  essential 
element,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  cause  and  symptom,  in 
contagious  diseases  is  specificity.  This  continues  for  all  time, 
and  though  there  be  variations  in  virulence  the  type  does  not 
change  in  any  important  factor.  As  to  what  the  constant 
element  is  which  is  transferred  from  individual  to  individual, 
seems  to  become  more  apparent  with  the  rapid  strides  in  the 
study  of  minute  plants  or  bacteria.  This  subject  we  will  now 
proceed  to  briefly  consider. 

BACTERIOLOGY. 

Bacteria,  micro-organisms,  microbes,  or  germs,  names 
used  interchangeably  and,  for  the  best  part,  synonymously, 
are  minute  vegetable  plants.  No  satisfactory  classification  of 
micro-organisms  has  as  yet  been  made.  In  order  for  any 
classification  to  have  the  stamp  of  scientific  value,  it  should  be 
based  upon  the  character  of  growth  and  methods  of  propagation, 
and  not  entirely  upon  the  shape  and  arrangement,  as  are  the 
present  methods.  In  the  existing  state  of  our  knowledge,  a 
scientific  classification  on  the  above  basis  is  not  as  yet  possible, 
as  we  have  not  sufficiently  advanced  in  our  study  of  these 
organisms  to  be  able  to  irive  such  a  classification.  With  these 


BACTERIOLOGY — BLASTOMVCETES.  35 

facts  borne  distinctly  in  mind,  we  will  briefly  consider  the  fol- 
lowing, which  may  be  considered  more  as  a  method  of  nomen- 
clature than  a  classification. 

(A)  Blastomycetes. — By  Blastomycetes  we  mean  budding 
fungi.  Of  these  there  are  two  great  divisions  worthy  of  con- 
sideration, the  Hypomycetes,  or  mould  fungi,  and  the  Saccliaro- 
jnycetcs.or  yeasts.  These  are  sufficiently  common  and  scattered 
over  and  throughout  the  universe.  So  far  as  we  know  they 
are  not,  except  in  rare  instances,  disease-producing  in  man. 

Hypomycetes.  The  most  familiar  example  of  the  Hypomy- 
cetes  is  that  greenish  mould  found  on  old  boots,  harness,  and 
moist  clothes  which  have  been  exposed  to  a  sufficient  degree  of 
heat  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  This  is  the  pencil  mould,  or 
pcnicillium  glancuni ;  so  far  as  known  it  is  not  disease-producing 
in  man,  although  in  rabbits  and  other  lower  animals  it  is  often 
actively  pathogenic,  even  fatal.  It  grows  upon  the  surface  of 
the  body  where  sufficient  cleanliness  is  not  resorted  to,  and  in 
localities  where  dirt  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate ;  thus  it  has 
been  found  in  the  ear  by  several  observers.  Another  good 
example  of  the  Hypomycetes  is  the  Aspcrgillus,  of  which  there 
are  no  less  than  eight  forms.  It  is  not  disease  producing  in 
man,  although  in  rabbits  it  is  fatal.  The  Erysiphe  belong  to  the 
Hypomycetes,  and  as  an  example  of  this  group  we  have  the 
O'idiitin  tnckcri  and  O'idiuui  lactis.  Gravwitz  has  attempted  to 
prove  that  the  favus  fungus  (AcJiorion  schonleinii),  the  fungus  ot 
tinea  tonsurans  (Tricophyton  tonsurans),  and  the  fungus  of  pity- 
riasis  versicolor  (Microsporon  furfur),  are  identical  with  the 
oidium  lactis,  but  the  evidence  in  this  direction  is  not,  as  yet, 
conclusive.  These  are  all  pathogenic. 

Although  of  a  doubtful  origin  it  is  probably  best  to  here 
classify  the  fungus  of  actinomycosis,  or  "big  jaw,"  as  it  is  called 
in  cattle.  By  different  writers  this  fungus  has  been  variously 
classified  ;  some  give  it  a  distinct  group  by  itself,  others  consider- 
ing it  as  belonging  to  the  Schizomycetes.  Having  no  better 
place  to  classify  this  organism  than  among  the  Hypomycetes, 
we  shall  so  place  it  until  investigation  affords  a  better  under- 
standing and  enables  us  to  give  it  a  more  definite  location. 

o  o 

Saccharomycetcs.  These  include  the  yeasts  and  torulaj,  and 
the  tribe  to  which  belongs  the  "  fungus  of  thrush,"  with  which 


36  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

we  are  all  more  or  less  familiar.     The  yeast  used  in  the  culinary 
art  to  make   bread    rise,  known  as  the   saccharomycetes  cere- 
visia?,  and  the  mother  of  vinegar,  mycoderma  aceti,  or  more 
properly  the  saccharomycetes  mycoderma,  belong  to  this  class. 
These  organisms  grow  by  budding,  as  is  shown  by  the  illus- 
tration.    A  single  circular  or  oval  cell  extends  outward  into  a 
shaft  or  prolongation  which  gives  off  a 
new  bud,  and  this  bud  again  gives  off  pro- 
longations terminating  in  other  buds,  the 
process  going  on    indefinitely.      Though 
occasionally   observed   in    the    bodies   of 
SACCHAROMYCETES  CKREVISI.*.    living  human  beings,  so  far  as  yet  known 

X  800  diam.  .11  j  i 

showing  the  mother  ceils,  the    the  saccharomycetes  do  not  produce  any 
w±n?heecensand  '    disease,   with   the    possible    exception   of 

the  thrush  fungus  already  referred  to. 

Having  thus  considered  the  first  great  division  of  micro- 
organisms, we  now  proceed  to  consider  the  second,  which  is  by 
far  the  more  important,  as  it  includes  all  those  organisms  com- 
monly associated  with,  if  not  actually  causing,  disease. 

(B)  Schizomycetes  or  Spaltpilze  or  Fission  Fungi. — These 
embrace  the  forms  that  are  of  greatest  interest  to  us,  as  among 
them  will  be  found  the  most  important  disease-producing  germs. 
The  subdivisions  of  this  group  are  (i)  Cocci,  or  sphero-bacteria, 
(2)  Bacilli,  or  desmo-bacteria,  (3)  Bacteria,  or  micro-bacteria, 
(4)  Spirilli,  or  spiro-bacteria.  (After  Cohn.) 

(i)  Cocci,  or  sphero-bacteria,  are  globular  or  spherical  bodies 
resembling  a  billiard  ball,  and  are,  so  far  as  we  know  at  present, 
without  spores.  There  are  two  subdivisions,  or  rather  methods 
of  naming,  (<?)  by  number,  (/;)  by  arrangement. 

(a)  By  number :  This  method  is  resorted  to  when  we  have  a 
coccus  with  a  certain  definite  growth  by  number,  e.g.,  mono- 
coccus,  or  single  coccus;  diplococcus,  or  double  coccus;  tctra- 
coccus,  or  four  or  quadruple  coccus,  /.  *•.,  arranged  in  fours. 

The  monococcus  includes  those  forms  in  which  there  is  no 
tendency  to  regular  grouping  in  any  constant  manner  The 
name  is  used  synonymously  with  micrococcus.  Some  writers 
consider  a  group  of  organisms,  cocci,  as  staphylococci,  or  grow- 
ing as  bunches  of  grapes.  These  have  been  usually  placed 
among  the  next  group,  but  the  supposed  method  of  growth 


BACTERIOLOGY — SCHIZOMYCETES. 


37 


upon  which  the  name  is  based  is  far  from  apparent,  and  we  do 
not  believe  it  is  a  morphological  characteristic  of  sufficient 
importance  to  be  given  a  distinction,  and  shall,  therefore,  con- 
sider the  group  as  identical  with  the  micrococci. 

A  double  or  diplococcus  usually  consists  of  two  hemi- 
spheroidal  bodies  with  their  flattened  surfaces  in  apposition,  a 
clear  space  showing  between  them,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  equal  to 
about  one-sixth  the  diameter  of  either  coccus.  More  rarely, 
however,  diplococci  exist  as  two  distinctly  formed  cocci  arranged 
side  by  side,  or,  very  rarely,  they  may  be  joined  together  like 
dumb-bells  ;  the  latter  the  writers  have  frequently  observed  in 
decomposing  urine.  It  is  likely  that  a  monococcus  during 
fission  becomes  a  diplococcus ;  but  that  such  is  the  case  has 
not  been  proven. 

The  tetracoccus,  or  quadruple  coccus,  consists  of  cocci  arranged 


FK;.  2. 


MONOCOCCI,  DIPLOCOCCI,  TKTRACOCCI, 
AND  SAKCINA.     X  800  cliam. 


IMC.  3. 

/•O- 


STREPTOCOCCUS  PYOGENES. 
X  800  diani. 

Showing  division  in  a  single 
diameter,  one  continuous 
chain ;  also  division  in 
two  diameters,  producing 
:i  double  chain. 


in  fours.  The  arrangement  may  be  like  that  of  an  apple  cut  in 
quarters  by  an  incision  in  the  axis  of  the  core  and  another  at 
right  angles,  the  different  segments  being  slightly  separated 
from  each  other.  This  is  not  the  rule,  however ;  in  tetracocci 
they  usually  exist  as  four  distinct  spheroidal  organisms.  The  best 
example  of  this  organism  is  seen  in  the  micrococcus  tetragonus. 
Sarcina,  or  packet  cocci,  are  by  some  classed  under  this  head. 
They  consist  of  packets  of  eight,  resembling  a  bale  of  cotton. 
This  characteristic  might  lead  us  to  regard  them  as  tetracocci 
in  double  or  superimposed  layers,  a  fact  explaining  fully  their 
growth  at  times  as  bundles  of  sixteen  or,  more  rarely,  thirty- 
two  or  even  sixty-four  elements. 

By  some  observers  the  diplococci  and  tetracocci  are  considered 
under  one  head  as  merismopedia,  while  the  sarcina  are  given  a 


38  HEALTH  —  CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

separate  and  distinct  class;  by  others  the  latter  are  considered 
under  the  second  division,  that  is,  growth  by  arrangement. 

The  second  method  of  naming  cocci  is  by  arrangement. 
Under  this  head  we  have  several  distinct  forms  which,  for  the 
most  part,  retain  their  identity  under  all  conditions. 

(a)  Streptococci.-  These  are  arranged  in  chains  like  the  beads 
of  a  necklace.  They  may  be  in  a  continuous  line,  monococci 
showing  division  in  a  single  transverse  diameter,  or  while  divid- 
ing, as  in  this  form,  they  may  undergo  a  division  in  an  opposite 
direction  as  well,  thus  giving  the  appearance  of  a  chain  of  diplo- 
cocci.  Such  division  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

(b}  Ascococci.  Where  cocci  evince  a  tendency  to  grow  in 
gelatinous  masses  or  families  having  a  definite  form  made  up  of 
solid  growths  with  or  without  a  capsule,  they  have  been  called 
ascococci,  a  name  having  a  certain  value  under  some  conditions. 
They  may  be  either  planar  or  spheroidal,  /.  c.,  the  aggregation 
may  be  made  up  of  cocci  arranged  in  a  single  plane  or  in 
spheroidal  masses  like  the  zoogloea  masses  often  referred  to  by 
Continental  writers.  Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  any  of  the  cocci 
under  conditions  poorly  understood  may  assume  this  manner 
of  growth.  It  is  probably  partly  dependent  upon  their  environ- 
ment and  pabulum. 

The  subdivision  of  fission  fungi  which  we  have  herein  sug- 
gested follows  that  given  by  Cohn.  By  this  method  the  bacilli 
or  desmo-bacteria,  are  considered  as  one  class 
separate  and  distinct  from  the  bacteria  proper, 

f^.  (ft*  or  micro-bacteria.      There   has   been  a  general 

'•#  w 

tendency  among  writers  to  classify  all  organisms 
Ascococcrs.       Soo  jn  u-i1jc]1  there  is  a  greater  diameter  in  one  direc- 
tion  than   in  another  as    bacilli.      While    there 
may  be  sufficient  ground  for  considering  them    under  separate 
and  distinct  heads,  as  far  as  our  purpose  is  concerned,  we  being 
largely  interested  in  the  method   of  classifying  by  which  we  can 
make  ourselves  mutually  intelligible,  as  well  as  to  simplify,  it  is 
perhaps  wiser  that  we  consider  them  both   together,      lleiux-  \ve 
propose  to  consider  bacteria  (micro-bacteria)  and  bacilli  (desmo- 
bacteria)  under  one  head. 

When  the  two  divisions  were  considered  separate!}',  the  b;u  illi 
were  described  as  filamentary  organisms,  very  much  longer  in 


BACTERIOLOGY BACILLI,    SPIKILLI.  39 

proportion  to  their  thickness  than  the  bacteria ;   the  latter  also 
differing  from  the  bacilli  in  that  they  had  rounded  ends. 

(2,  3)  Bacilli.  .Bacilli  usually  propagate  by  fission,  although 
spore  formation  is  not  infrequent.  Fission,  as  already  described, 
implies  that  a  single  organism  has  grown  continually  in  its  longi- 
tudinal axis  until  it  has  reached  a  certain  size,  at  which  time  it 
divides  into  two  or  more  bacilli,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  5.  In  many 
bacilli  fission  may  be  seen  at  all  stages  of  their  KK. 

development.     By  spore  formation  we  mean  that 
a  given  organism,  either  with   or  without  very  • 

much  increase  in  its  longitudinal  axis,  develops  •_  ^ 

within  its  cell  wall  one  or   more  small,  highly  •    •* 

refractive,  and  globose  or  ovoidal  bodies,  closely  PROPAGATION  «v 
resembling  cocci.  They  are  retained  within  the 
cell  wall  until  their  development  is  complete,  at  which  time  the 
cell  wall  breaks  down  and  the  spores  are  set  free.  These  spores 
have  many  characteristics  peculiar  to  themselves,  as,  for  example, 
when  we  consider  antiseptics  and  germicides,  we  will  find  that 
they  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  that  their  vitality  is  but  little 
affected  by  agents  which  destroy  the  mature  organism.  While 
many  organisms  under  conditions  favorable  to  growth  pullulate 
by  fission,  when  subjected  to  adverse  conditions  develop  spores 
which,  in  many  instances,  are  practically  indestructible  by  any 
natural  process,  as  drying,  extreme  cold,  or  the  absence  of  any 
or  all  forms  of  nutriment. 

(4)  Spirilli,  or  spiro-bactcria.    These  consist  of  organisms  filamen- 
tary in  character,  but  coiled  more  or  less,  like  the  turns  of  a  cork- 
screw.   They  may  be  rigid  spirals,  in  which  case 
they  are  spirilli  proper,  while  if  the   organism 
be  flexible   or  a  filament,  becoming  wavy   or  jj  | 

screw-like  upon  motion  it  is  known  as  a  spiro- 
e/iete.  The  spirilli  grow,  for  the  most  part,  by 
fission.  In  some  instances  spore  formation  has 
been  observed.  (See  Relapsing  Fever  and 
Cholera.) 

Other  Classifications  of  Organisms. 

From  a  clinical  standpoint,  organisms  are  presumed  to  be 
either  productive  of  disease  (pathogenic)  or  they  are  non-produc- 
tive of  disease  (non-pathogenic}.  These  are  the  pathogens  and 


4O  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

non-pathogens  of  some  observers.  Again,  organisms  are  spoken 
of  as  saprophytic,  or  saprophytes  >  by  which  we  mean  that  they 
grow  upon  the  surface  or  on  the  mucous  membranes  without 
giving  rise  to  any  distinct  disease  whatever.  To  this  class,  now 
disproportionately  large,  probably  belong  the  pathogenic  organ- 
isms of  some  diseases  in  which  the  presumable  microbic  cause 
has  not  been  made  out,  the  saprophytes  belonging,  of  course,  to 
the  non-pathogenic  bacteria. 

There  is  also  a  basis  of  nomenclature  founded  upon  their  re- 
action to  air  (Pasteur),  or  rather,  in  a  clearer  sense,  to  the  effect 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  oxygen.  Those  organisms  living 
in  the  presence  of  oxygen  are  known  as  aerobic,  while  those 
thriving  without  air,  or  oxygen,  are  anaerobic.  There  has  been 
forced  upon  the  bacteriologist  two  words — unfortunate  in  some 
respects — viz.,  facultative  and  obligate.  Thus  the  organism  which 
causes  consumption  is  an  obligate  aerobic  bacillus,  while  that 
which  causes  tetanus  has  been,  until  of  late,  supposed  to  be  an 
obligate  anaerobic  organism  ;  but,  as  shown  by  Kitasato  and 
Kyle,  it  grows  in  the  presence  of  oxygen,  though  best  when 
this  element  is  absent;  it  is  a  facultative  anaerobic  bacillus.  As 
some  organisms  produce  color,  they  are  called  chromogenic. 

The  microbes  which  produce  pus  are  known  as  pyogenic  organ- 
isms, and  may  be  either  facultative  or  obligate  in  their  action- 
Thus  the  bacillus  coli  communis  is  not  ordinarily  pus-producing  ; 
it  may,  however,  do  so,  under  which  circumstance  it  becomes  a 
facultative  pyogenic  organism.  Other  methods  of  nomenclature 
will  be  often  met  with,  but,  for  the  most  part,  they  explain  them- 
selves. 

The  methods  by  which  micro-organisms  produce  disease  are 
two,  (i)  By  direct  invasion,  (2)  The  chemical  products  of  the  bac- 
teria may  be  causative  factors.  As  an  example  of  the  former, 
we  have  the  plugging  of  the  blood-vessels,  as  in  anthrax,  while 
of  the  latter,  we  have  the  symptoms  of  tetanus  due  to  the  pto- 
maines or  alkaloids  produced  by  the  bacillus. 

A  large  number  of  diseases  are  a  priori  of  microbic  origin, 
although  no  specific  organism  has  as  yet  been  isolated.  In 
the  following  list  we  endeavor  to  deduce  the  extent  of  the 
relation  subsisting  between  organisms  and  disease  : — 

Actinomycosis,      Actinomyces,  or    ray    fungus.      Pyriform    or 


ANTHRAX  —  CHOLERA    AS1ATICA. 


41 


club-shaped  elements  arranged  in  rosette  forms,  and  hence 
named  "  Ray  fungus." 

Anthrax.  Bacillus  anthracis  (Davaine).  A  rod-shaped  organ- 
ism i  to  1.5  !>•  thick  and  5  to  20  ,»-  in  length.  Develops  resisting 
spores.  Causes  a  disease  known  as  splenic  fever  in  animals 
and  malignant  pustule  in  man.  Wool  sorters'  disease  is  one 
form  of  the  affection,  so  named  from  the  source  of  the  infection. 
(See  article  on  "  Meat  Inspection.") 

Anthrax,  Symptomatic.     (See  article  on  "  Meat  Inspection.") 

Bronchitis,  Acute.  Osier  regards  the  condition  as  "  probably 
microbic,"  while  many  retain  the  opposite  view.  This  does  not 
refer  to  those  forms  due  to  irritants. 

Acute    Catarrhal    Conditions    Affecting    the    Gastro-intestinal 


Fv..  7. 


FH;.  8. 


ACTINOMYCES  (Ray  Fungus). 

X  800  diam. 
From  bovine  actinomycosis. 


Mucous  Membrane.  These  are  not  infrequently  due  to  the 
ingestion  of  bacteria  and  their  products,  the  latter,  no  doubt, 
being  the  more  active  agents. 

Cerebro-spinal  Meningitis.  Presumed  to  be  due  to  an  organ- 
ism ;  various  forms  have  been  found  associated  with  the  disease. 
The  lance-shaped  coccus  of  Pasteur  has  been  most  commonly 
observed. 

Varicella,  or  Chicken-pox.  Presumed  to  be  caused  by  a  germ, 
but  no  trustworthy  observations  have  been  made  except  in  the 
negative. 

Cliolera  asiatica.  Spirillum  cholera  (Koch).  Spiral-shaped 
organisms  usually  growing  as  short,  slender,  comma-shaped 
rods,  hence  the  name  comma  bacilli  ;  they  possess  flaggelli. 


42  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

Supposed   to  show   spore    formation.     Causes    Asiatic  Cholera 
in    man,   usually  gains   ingress  to  the  body  by 
ingestion,     spreading    originally    from     other 
{    i.c^  cases  of  cholera. 

p.<5  Membranous  Laryngitis,  or  Croup.     The  inti- 

srnm.Li-MCn.'LEKA     mate  clinical  relation  of  this  disease  to  diphthe- 

ASIATICA. 

odium  rja  JKIS  rendered  its  microbic  orgin  most  prob- 

r  rom     culliire         Single  ° 

^'"o'tTierT^'oinefr'in  a^^e     The   intimate  connection  subsisting  be- 

threajr"1 '"  :"shaped  tween  membranous  croup,  laryngeal  and  other 

forms  of  diphtheria,  and  Loffler's  bacillus  has 

led  the  majority  of  the  profession  to  consider  the  bacillus  the 

etiologic  factor  in  all. 

Dengue.  McLaughlin,  of  Texas,  has  found  in  the  blood  of 
patients  a  coccus  which  Osier  regards  as  "  streptococcus-like." 
Its  exact  causative  relation  to  the  disease  is  still  a  question  of 
dispute. 

Diphtheria.     Bacillus  diphtherias  (Loffler-Klebs).     Rod-shaped 
organism,  in  length  about  2  to  4  .",  and  twice 
the  width  of  a  tubercle  bacillus.     Causes  diph- 
theria in  man,  also  in  rabbits  and  other  lower 
animals. 

Dysentery.  Epidemic.     Is    usually  associated    , 

»  UACILLl'S   OF   DlPHTHR- 

with  conditions  favorable   to  the  theory  of  a     '<.'A-  8o)  dia'"- 

•>  r  rom  culture. 

microbic  cause  or  a  ptomaine  poisoning.     Con- 
clusive evidence  is,  however,  wanting. 

Endocarditis.      Microbic  causes  have  been  presumed  to  exist. 
Erysipelas.    Streptococcus  pyogenes  (Rosenbach)  vel  erysipe- 
latis   (Fehleisen).     This    organism    was,   at   one    time,  believed 
to  be  two  distinct  members  of  the  cocci   group,  but    now  ob- 
servers   are    fairly    well    agreed    that    the    two 
discoverers    have    found    one    organism    under 
'.\  .*".•**    ...         differing    conditions.      It    is    undoubtedly   one 
/ f  •///  '"  of  the  causes  of  suppuration,  and  is  the  specific 

\    *    *  \  *•*. 

''*':*•'.•"•'''/  cause    of  erysipelas.      It    develops    constantly 

as   a   chain   coccus,   dividing   in   two   directions 
not    infrequently,  thus    giving    the  idea    of    a 
chain    of    diplococci.       It    is    very   variable    in 
si/e,  and  different  sixes  ma}'  he:  found  in  the  same  chain. 

Erysipclatous  /•<  rrr,  or   I>l<n'k    Tongue.      Probably   of   microbic 


FAVUS — GLANDERS — GO.NOKRHEA. 


43 


origin,  although  no  evidence  has  been  adduced  sufficiently 
strong  to  make  it  positive. 

Erytlirasma,  Pinta  Disease.  This  and  a  few  other  similar 
pigmentary  diseases  of  the  skin  due  to  organisms  have  been 
described  in  the  tropics.  They  are  rare  in  this  country. 

Faints.  A  disease  of  the  skin  imported  into  this  country  from 
Europe,  and  contagious  from  contact.  It  would  appear  that 
clirt  is  necessary  to  its  inception,  as  cleanliness  seems  to  remove 
the  likelihood  of  its  spread.  It  is  due  to  the  Achorion  schon- 
leinii,  a  fungus  belonging  to  the  erysiphe  group. 


FAVUS.  X  8uo  diam  (from  a  mouse),  a.  Germinating 
tube  from  gelatin  culture,  b.  Cornelia,  c.  Formation 
of  fruit.  <?.  Mycelium  threads  with  fructification. 


FAVUS  from  agar  agar  culture. 


Glanders,  or  Farcy.  Bacillus  Mallei  (Loftier  and  Schiitz). 
Rod-shaped  organism  about  the  size  of  the  bacillus  tuber- 
culosis ;  the  ends  are  more  rounded,  and  it  reacts  differently  to 
stains.  Causes  glanders  or  farcy  in  horses,  from  which  the 
disease  has  been  communicated  to  men. 


Fu;.  13. 


Fid.  14. 


I!ACILLUS  MALLIU  (Glanders').       <  Sao  diam. 
From  culture  on  potato. 


DIFLOCUCCUS  OF  GONORRHEA 
(Gonococcus),  X  Soo  diam. 


GonorrJica,  Gonococctis  (Xeisser);  Alicrococcus  or  Diplo- 
coccus  of  Gonorrhea.  A  diplococcus  constantly  present  in 
gonorrhea. 


44  HKALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

Influenza,  or  La  Grippe.  Highly  infectious.  Microbic  origin 
probable. 

Leprosy.     Bacillus    Lepraj  (Hansen).     Rod-shaped  organism 

closely  resembling  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.     Causes  Leprosy 

and  is  considered  diagnostic  of  the  disease. 

Malaria.    The  Bacillus  malaria,*  of  Klebs 

'  ^^  anc^  ^'s  conteniporaries  has  not  been  ac- 

M'    \    }A   I'  cepted,  and  at  present  the  disease  is  pre- 

\l    ^  sumed  to  be  due  to  the  parasitic  organisms 

ii.un.irs  OF  LKI-KO*Y.       of  Laveran,   which   belong  to  a  group  of 

a    Maiu«Xbadiii.ian*'   Uaciiii   parasites   known   as   hematozoa,   members 

containing  spores       c.    Bead-         r  .1         ,^r,^^'/r>-i 
c<l  appearance  of  the  bacilli.     OI   llie   pHOlO/Oa. 

£ciVili'.rv<  AM**  Fever,  or  Rock  Fever.     Bruce    has 

described  a  micrococcus  as  present  in  the 
spleen,  but  the  entire  subject  of  its  etiology  is  snb  jndice. 

Rnbeola,  or  Measles.  Contagion  not  known.  Many  organisms 
have  been  described,  but  as  yet  none  meet  the  requirements  of 
Koch's  law. 

Epidemic  Parotitis,  or  Mumps.  The  infectious  agent  is  not 
known.  The  various  organisms  found  have  not  been  thor- 
oughly investigated. 

Mycctoma,  or  Madura  Foot,  also  known  as  t/ie  F'migtts  Foot. 
The  close  analogy  subsisting  between  this  disease  and  actino- 
mycosis  would  incline  one  to  believe  the  exciting  cause  some 
cognate  organism.  Vandyke  Carter  has  described  a  fungus  as 
present  in  these  cases.  However,  as  Lewis,  Cunningham,  and 
Tilbury  Fox  have  failed  to  identify  the  fungus,  the  matter  may 
be  still  considered  sub  jndice. 

Plennsy.  The  diplococcus  of  Fr.inikel  has  been  shown  to 
have  a  certain  causative  relation  to  this  disease. 

Pneumonia  (Croupous\  Diplococcus 
pneumonia:  (Fnenkcl).  In  the  lung  and 
sputum  it  is  usually  within  a  capsule,  which 
is  lost  by  cultivation.  (  Note.—  From  some 
experiments  carried  on  in  Dr.  C'oplin's 
laboratory  by  Dr.  (iilbert,  ol  Georgia,  we 
are  convinced  that  the  microbic  theory  of 
Pneumonia  is  still  to  be-  settled  bv  further 
investigation  >. 


)/) 
^  'C( 
*J  \ 


I'YEMIA  —  SCARLET    FEVKK.  45 

This  disease  is  now  known  to  be  due  to  a  mycotic 
invasion  of  the  blood  by  the  organisms  which  produce  pus.  It 
is  possible  that  there  are  other  forms  which  gain  ingress  at  the 
same  time  ;  this,  however,  is  not  settled. 

Rabies  or,  Hydrophobia.  The  possibility  of  this  disease  being 
due  to  bacteria  is  admitted,  but  as  yet  sufficient  evidence  has  not 
been  adduced. 

Relapsing  Fever.     Spirochajte  obermaieri  (Obermaier).     Flex- 
ible filamentary  organism  present  in  the  blood 
of  patients  having  relapsing  fever.     It  is  pres- 
ent only  during  the  relapse.  C 

RJienniatic    Fever,    or  Acute   Rlieuniatism.  )/)f*r 

Probable  microbic  origin  has  been  brought         ^     ' 
forward,  but   no  germ   has  as  yet  been  defi- 
nitely  presented  as  the  cause. 

SPIRILLUM    OF     RHLAPSING 

Rhinoscleroma.    Bacillus  of  Rhinoscleroma.        FKTBK  (Spjrochsete  ober- 

maien).     XSoodinm. 

(Cornil  and  Alverez).     Short  rods  1.5  to  5  IL 

in  length  and  .5  to  .8  /j.  thick.     Spore  formation  doubtful. 

The  Various  Forms  of  Ringworm.  Due  to  the  invasion  in 
the  skin  in  different  localities  by  the  Tinea  trichophytina  or  Tri- 
chophyton  tonsurans.  There  is  also  a  form  of  ringworm 
usually  imported  from  the  tropics  and  due  to  the  Tinea  imbri- 
cata.  It  would  appear  from  the  description  usually  given  of  this 
disease  that  certain  climatological  factors  are  necessary  for  its 
development.  The  contagiousness  of  the  disease  diminishes  as 
we  approach  from  tropical  to  temperate  climates  and  is  unknown 
in  the  colder  regions. 

Sapremia.  This  disease  is  due  to  the  absorption  of  ptomaines 
produced  by  some  of  the  many  forms  of  organisms.  Usually  it 
is  a  surgical  disease,  but  identical  symptoms  have  manifested 
themselves  after  swallowing  mixtures  containing  bacteria  or  their 
products.  Notably  has  this  been  the  case  in  drinking  water 
heavily  charged  with  sewerage,  several  deaths  having  been  traced 
directly  to  this  source. 

Scarlet  Fever,  or  Scarlatina.  Specific  microbe  not  yet  isolated. 
There  is  a  presumed  relation  between  the  throat  condition  and 
the  bacillus  of  diphtheria.  A  streptococcus  has  been  observed 
in  the  blood,  lymphatic  glands,  and  kidneys. 

Septicemia.     As   in    Pyemia,  this   disease   is    due    to   bacteria 


46  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

thriving  in  the  blood  and  producing  ptomaines,  which  give  rise 
to  the  symptoms.     No  specific  organism  is  known  to  exist. 
Gangrenous  Stomatitis,  or   Cancrnm  oris,  or  Noma.     Presumed 

microbic  origin,  not  yet 
known.  Lingard's  bacillus 
is  considered  by  Osier  as 
of  doubtful  significance. 

Parasitic  Stomatitis,  or 
Thrush.  This  disease  is 
produced  by  a  fungus  be- 
longing to  the  saccharomy- 
cetes  and  known  as  S.  al- 
bicans ;  by  some  authors 
as  Oidium  albicans. 

SACCHAKOMVCBTKS    (Oi'dium)    ALIIICANS,  or   Thrush  .  .     . 

Fungus.  ulccrative    Stomatitis. 

Possible    microbic    origin. 
Relation  to  foot  and  mouth  disease  not  entirely  proven. 

Suppuration.  Micrococcus  pyogenes  aureus  (Rosenbach). 
Chromogenic  micrococci  . 8 />  in  diameter.  De- 
veloping an  orange-yellow  color  in  culture. 
Micrococcus  pvogenes  albus,  same  general  de- 

•*  •°t*k*»5>  * 

'\\>f'  scription    as    above,    except    that    the    culture 

growth  is  white.  Micrococcus  pyogenes  citreus. 
Same  as  above,  except  that  the  color  in  culture 
is  a  citron  yellow.  Micrococcus  cereus  flavus  and  micrococcus 
cereus  albus  (Passet)  have  also  been  identified  as  present  in  pus. 
(See  erysipelas.)  There  are  other  organisms  which  are  faculta- 
tive pyogenic  bacteria. 

Syphilis.  Bacillus  of  Syphilis  (Lust- 
garten)  is  a  rod-shaped  organism  resem- 
bling very  closely  the  organisms  found  in 
leprosy  and  tuberculosis.  Spore  formation 
not  as  yet  determined.  The  question  of 
its  pathogenesis  may  be  considered  as 
thoroughly  established. 

Tetanus.  Bacillus  of  Tetanus  (Nicolaier). 
Rod-shaped  organism  developing  endos- 
pores  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  drum- 
stick. Found  largely  in  earth. 


TUBERCULOSIS — TYPHOID  FEVKK.  47 

Tinea  vcrsicolor.     This  disease  is  due  to  ;i  vegetable  parasite 
known  as  the  Microsporon  furfur. 


FIG.  21. 


MICROSPOKON  FURFUR  (TINEA  VKRSICOI.OK).     ;<  foo  diam. 

Tuberculosis  (Consumption}.  Bacillus  tuberculosis.  A  rod- 
shaped  organism  very  thin  and  from  2  to  4  //  in 
length.  Spore  formation  not  as  yet  fully  estab- 
lished, although  probable.  Causes  consumption 
and  tubercular  processes  in  the  glands,  joints, 
bones,  etc.  It  is  abundantly  present  in  the 
sputum  of  patients  suffering  from  tuberculosis  HACILM-S  TUBBRCU- 

r       .  _,  i         r       11     r  r     ")SIS'     x  8o°  <liam- 

of    the     lungs.      Ihe    spread    of    all    forms    of 
tuberculosis  is  undoubtedly  due  to  this  organism. 

Typhoid,  or  Enteric  Fever.  Bacillus  typhosus  (Gaffky).  Rod- 
shaped  organisms  i  //  in  width  and  2  to  4  in  length, 
occasionally  forming  filaments  50  :>•  long.  Organism  supposed 
to  be  flagellated.  Spore  formation  not  proven.  These  bacilli 
produce  Typhoid  Fever,  and  under  certain  conditions  have  been 
able,  it  is  presumed,  to  produce  suppuration.  Usually  gains 
ingress  from  the  dejecta  of  other  cases  of  typhoid  fever, 
through  milk,  water,  dirtv  clothes,  possibly  by 

J        J  Fie.  2;. 

the  air.  /w* 

Oriental  Plague.     Under  the  varied  names  of        -VlV^ 

-»*•//' 

"the  black  death,"  "bubonic  plague,"  miserial  'i'/* 

morbis,  and  Oriental  plague,  there  has  existed  in     BACILLUS  TVPHO- 

the  East  a  most  fatal  disease,  which,  from  the 

historical  and  modern  accounts,  answers   all   the   requirements 


48  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

usually  present  in  highly  infectious  microbic  maladies.  The 
disease  is  unknown  in  America,  but  as  late  as  1885  it  has 
threatened  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

Sii'Crt/itig  Sift'Hi'ss.  An  epidemic  infectious  disease  about 
which  little  is  known  ;  may,  indeed,  probably  does,  belong  to  the 
microbic  diseases. 

Typhus  /vrvv.  Strepto-bacillus  (Hlava).  Has  not  as  yet  been 
thoroughly  investigated.  The  highly  contagious  character  of 
the  disease  makes  its  microbic  origin  probable. 

/  'tirio/a,  or  Smallpox.  Specific  virus  unknown.  Micrococci 
of  suppuration  have  been  noted  as  constantly  present  in  the 
pustules. 

Vaccinia  \\iccinatiou.  Microbes  presumed  to  be  the  active 
agents.  Quist,  and  Ernest,  and  Martin,  of  Boston,  have  isolated 
and  cultivated  cocci,  which  when  inoculated  in  children  produce 
a  typical  vesicle. 

\Vlwoping  CougJi.  Presumed  to  be  caused  by  some  form  of 
microorganism,  but  proof  is  wanting.  Afanassjew's  bacillus 
probably  deserves  a  closer  study  than  has  yet  been  given  it. 

Ye/Ion1  /r  «vr.  Of  the  many  organisms  presumed  to  be  pre- 
sent, none  have  withstood  the  test  of  experimentation. 

To  the  above  list  might  be  added  some  rare  diseases,  presum- 
ably due  to  microorganisms,  and  experimental  diseases  pro- 
duced in  the  laboratory,  but  rarely,  if  ever,  to  be  seen  in 
man.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  but  few  diseases  exist  in  which  microbic  causes 
seem  probable,  that  have  not  been  as  fully  investigated  as  their 
prevalence  would  permit. 

Ptomaine  Poisoning. — Not  only  have  bacteria  a  definite 
relation  per  si~  to  the  production  of  disease,  but  the  products  of 
bacteria,  ptomaines,  are  actively  disease  producing  ;  indeed,  it 
seems  highly  probable  that  these  arc,  almost  exclusively,  the 
agents  upon  which  the  symptoms  and  lesions  depend.  Eor  the 
most  part,  we  are  interested  in  those  forms,  ingestive  in  mode 
of  invasion,  usually  due  to  decomposition  of  some  of  the  foods. 
Meat,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  is  the  infective  or  carrying 
material.  (  ases  of  poisoning  by  meat  pie,  sausage,  and  similar 
cooked  and  uncooked  animal  compounds  have  long  been 
Known  a.s  occasionally  inducing  toxic  conditions;  it  is,  however, 


ANIMAL    PARASITES.  49 

only  recently   that  ptomaines   have   been    brought  forward  as 
actively  etiologic  factors. 

These  poisons  act  either  as  irritants  to  the  alimentary  canal 
or  by  toxic  effect  upon  the  circulatory,  respiratory,  or  nervous 
systems.  Some  members  of  this  group  of  alkaloids  have  been 
studied  with  great  care,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Vaughan 
and  Novy  have  gone  into  the  subject  most  fully,  and  any  one 
desirous  of  obtaining  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  subject  will 
do  well  to  consult  their  work.  These  gentlemen  have  interested 
themselves  more  particularly  in  the  direction  of  cheese,  milk, 
and  ice  cream,  bringing  forth  their  discovery  of  tyrotoxicon,  to 
which,  as  they  point  out,  has  been  due  many  of  the  fatal  poison- 
ings. The  exact  cause  or  causes  which  lead  to  the  production 
of  tyrotoxicon  have  not,  as  yet,  been  ascertained.  This  subject 
will  again  be  considered  when  we  take  up  food. 

Animal  Parasites. — Disease  may  be  produced  by  parasites 
belonging  to  this  group.  For  the  most  part,  their  action,  so  far 
as  known,  is  purely  mechanical.  Unlike  bacteria,  we  are  not 
aware  of  any  chemical  products  engendered,  and  their  methods 
of  producing  disease  depend  almost  entirely,  if  not  exclusively, 
upon  mechanical  interference  with  function,  or  the  induction  of 
inflammation  by  invasion,  either  directly  or  indirectly.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important : — 

Kcratosis  follicnlaris,  Pagcfs  Disease  of  f/ic  Nipple,  Cancer  (/) 
The  sporozoa  are  minute  animal  parasites  of  the 

FIG.    24. 

lowest  order  or  division  of  protozoa.  As  a  rule, 
they  enter  the  organism  with  the  food  and 
eventually  are  found  in  the  liver.  Although 
sufficient  evidence  is  at  hand  to  demonstrate 
their  causative  relation  to  certain  processes,  we 
are  not  in  a  position  at  present  to  give  a  distinct 
clue  as  to  their  source. 

Osier  refers  to  cutaneous  Psorospermiasis, 
including  under  this  head  Keratosis  follicularis 
and  possibly  Paget's  disease  of  the  nipple.  An 

^      .  DISTOMA  HBPATICUM. 

organism  brought  forward   by    Kussell  as   con- 

£->  o  y 

stantly  associated  with  cancer  probably  belongs  to  this  group. 

Flukes,  or  Treniatodes.  These  parasites  rarely  cause  disease  in 
man.  They  infest  either  the  alimentary  canal  or  its  appendages, 


HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION  OF    DISEASE. 


less  commonly  the  blood.  Diseases  due  to  flukes  are  not  com- 
mon in  this  country,  they  being,  for  the  most  part,  found  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  East.  Invasion  is  probably  brought  about 
by  infection  through  water  containing  the  ova.  Little,  however, 
is  known  of  their  life  history,  and  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  large  amount  of  impotable  water  annually  consumed,  with  the 
inevitable  quantity  of  animal  parasites  or  their  ova,  we  cannot 
doubt  the  possibility  of  many  obscure  cases  being  due  to  some  of 
the  forms  of  distomiasis. 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


OxvfKis  VKRMKTLAKIS 
,i.   Female.       b.   .Male. 


\KIS    I,UMIIKICOIDE5    AND    KGGS. 


Ascciris  Inmbricoidcs.  Ascaris  lumbricoides,  or  round  worm, 
infests  the  intestine,  although  it  may  wander  into  any  of  the  pas- 
sages which  open  into  the  alimentary  canal,  c.  g.,  the  bile  duct, 
larynx,  etc.  The  male  measures  about  four  to  six  inches  in 
length,  the  female,  seven  to  ten  ;  color  yellowish-brown  or  pale 
reddish-yellow. 

Oxynris  vennicularis.  Oxyuris  vermicularis,  or  thread-worm. 
This  parasite  derives  its  name  from  the  close  resemblance  which 


TKICHIN.i; — FILAKI/K.  5  [ 

it  bears  to  a  thread  of  fine  sewing  cotton.  The  female  is  scarcely 
half  an  inch  and  the  male  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Ingress 
is  probably  attained  through  food  and  drink. 

Tricoccpltalus  disbar.  This  unimportant  parasite  measures 
from  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  the  female  being  the 
larger.  They  are  easily  differentiated  from  the  Oxyuris  by 
their  anterior  extremity  being  extremely  thin,  while  the  body 
thickens  as  we  progress  toward  the  posterior  termination,  which 
is  blunted. 

TricJiince  spiralis.  A  well-known  disease,  trichinosis,  is  pro- 
duced in  man  through  the  invasion  of  the  muscular  system  by 
the  embryo  of  the  intestinal  parasite.  These  are  better  shown  in 
the  cut  than  can  be  here  described.  (See  illustration  in  meat 
inspection).  Trichina;  are  derived  almost  exclusively  from  the 
hog,  although  they  are  to  be  found  in  cats,  rats,  mice,  moles,  and 
other  lower  animals. 

Dochmius  duodcnalis.  Dochmius,  or  strongulus  duodenalis, 
is  a  parasite  found  chiefly  in  the  jejunum  of  man.  Ingestion 
occurs  through  water.  The  different  forms  of  anemia  known  as 
brickmaker's,  tunnel,  and  mountain  anemia  are  due  to  this  par- 
asite, as  is  also  Egyptian  chlorosis. 

Filaria  sanguinis  Jiomitiis.  A  parasite  which  in  the  adult  state 
is  found  in  the  lymphatics.  It  produces  hematochyluria,  elephan- 
tiasis, and  lymph-scrotum.  It  is  extremely  minute  in  its  trans- 
verse diameter,  not  over  one-hundredth  of  an  inch,  and  measur- 
ing from  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  The  filarioi  are  most  com- 
mon in  tropical  countries,  and  their  ingestion  occurs,  most  prob- 
ably, through  water.  The  ova,  cast  in  circulation,  are  probably 
extracted  by  the  mosquito,  in  which  possibly  some  development 
takes  place,  the  final  lodgment  occurring  by  the  death  of  their 
host. 

Filariie,  OtJicr  Forms.  Other  forms  of  Filaria:  are  :  /'". 
Dracnnailns  mcdhicnsis,  or  (iitinca-n'onu,  F.  loa,  F.  Icntis,  F- 
labuilis,  F.  Jiouiini  oris,  F.  imitis.  Invasion  occurs  through  im- 
pure water. 

Rare  Pamsifcs.  EnsfrongY/ns  gigas,  Rhabdoncma  intcstinalc, 
are  parasites  which  have  occasionally  been  seen  in  man. 

Tcnia  mcdiocandlata.  Tenia  mediocanellata,  or  beef  tape- 
worm, a  parasite  found  in  the  intestines  varying  greatly  in  size. 


52  HEALTH— ^CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

Gains  ingress  through  the  eating  of  uncooked  beef  containing 
the  embryo.  (See  Meat  Inspection?) 

Tenia  solium.  Tenia  solium  is  derived  from  the  hog, in  which 
it  exists  as  small  ova  or  cysts,  which,  if  not  destroyed  by  cook- 
in<r.  <jive  rise  to  adult  worms,  differing  from  the  Tenia  medio- 

I*>  *    J">  ^* 

canellata  in  that  it  is  usually  solitary  and  has  its  head  surmounted 
by  a  circle  of  hooklets.  Pork  containing  these  cysts  is  known 
as  "  measley  pork."  (See  article  on  Meat  Inspection). 

Cysticerens  cellulose.  The  larva  of  the  Tenia  solium  is  known 
by  this  name.  When  the  larvae  gain  ingress  to  the  stomach,  either 
by  ingestion  with  the  food  or  regurgitation  from  the  intestine, 
they  penetrate  the  muscular  wall  and  give  rise  to  cysts  in  various 
parts  of  the  organism.  (See  Meat  Inspection?) 

Echinococcus,  or  Hydatid  Disease.  Kchinococci,  or  hydatid 
worms,  are  the  larval  forms  of  the  Tenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog, 
and  usually  gain  ingress  to  the  organism  by  ingestion.  The 
disease  is  rare  in  this  country.  (See  Meat  Inspection?) 

Bothriocephalus  latus.  A  tape-worm,  rare  in  this  country, 
presumed  to  develop  in  certain  fish;  this,  however,  is  not  posi- 
tively known. 

Parasitic  AracJmida.  Pentastomum  tenioides,  a  lancet-shaped 
parasite  observed  in  the  nostrils  and  frontal  sinuses  of  the  dog, 
more  rarely  in  the  horse. 

Pentastomum  denticulatum  may  rarely  be  the  occasion  of 
inconvenience. 

Pentastomum  constrictum  has  been  observed  by  Aitken  in 
the  liver  and  lungs. 

Demodex  (Acarus)  follicularum  (rare)  infests  the  sebaceous 
follicles  in  sufficient  numbers  to  give  rise  to  inflammation  or 
acne. 

Acarus  (or  Sarcoptes)  scabiei,  or  itch  insect.  This  is  the 
most  important  of  the  Arachnid  parasites  and  infests  the  skin, 
giving  rise  to  well-known  and  troublesome  lesions. 

Ixodcs  ricinus,  or  wood  tick,  is  a  parasite  occasionally 
found  upon  dogs  and  other  lower  animals. 

I.eptus  aiitumnalis.  This  is  a  harvest  mite.  Although  it  is 
extremely  small,  it  can  be  readily  seen  on  account  of  its  red 
color.  It  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  slight  skin  lesions  which 
are,  however,  not  const, int.  There  are  two  American  species 


PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE.  53 

which  are  very  closely  allied,  the  Lcptus  americanus  and  the 
Leptus  irritans. 

Parasitic  Insects.  Pediculus  capitis,  or  head  louse.  This  par- 
asite or  insect  is  found  more  particularly  upon  the  head,  where  it 
burrows  in  the  scalp,  from  which  it  sucks  blood  for  its  nourish- 
ment. The  eggs  or  nits  are  deposited  upon  the  hair,  to  which 
they  are  attached  by  a  chitinous  covering.  The  young  louse 
hatches  in  from  eight  to  ten  days  or  possibly  less. 

Pediculus  pubis,  or  crab  louse,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  hairy 
parts  of  the  body,  more  particularly  the  axilla  and  the  external 
genitalia.  It  js  smaller  than  the  head  louse  and  more  difficult 
to  detect. 

Pediculus  vestimentorum,  or  body  louse,  is  found  in  the  cloth- 
ing, usually  in  the  neighborhood  of  seams  and  crevices,  in  which 
it  may  hide  and  deposit  its  eggs.  It  feeds  off  the  body,  which 
it  visits  for  that  purpose.  It  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Pedi- 
culosis capitis. 

Cimex  lectuarius,  or  bed-bug,  infests  bedding,  old  floors,  walls, 
closets,  bedsteads,  etc.  This  insect  visits  the  human  victim  in 
order  to  suck  blood  ;  its  visitations  are  usually  at  night,  although 
not  necessarily  so,  as  individuals  sleeping  in  the  daytime  will 
be  just  as  much  annoyed  as  at  night. 

Pulex  irritans,  or  common  flea,  most  commonly  found  on  the 
hog  and  dog,  may  be  a  parasite  on  the  human.  Its  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  floors,  in  sawdust,  leaves,  dry  hay,  etc. 

Pulex  penetrans.or  sand  flea,  also  known  as  jigger,  is  found  in 
the  sands  of  South  Africa  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  this 
country. 

THE  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE. 

There  are  two  methods  which  may  be  available  for  the  pre- 
vention of  disease,  the  first  to  be  spoken  of  as  general  means, 
and  the  second,  special.  These  may  be  aptly  illustrated  by  com- 
paring disease  to  a  fire,  in  which  we  take  certain  general  means 
to  render  the  building  fire-proof,  and,  second,  when  the  fire 
seems  impending,  means  arc  brought  to  bear  in  order  to  prevent 
the  fire  attacking  the  building.  Under  the  head  of  general 
means  we  have  to  consider  the  individual  and  the  maintenance 
of  his  physical  condition  in  that  state  which  rentiers  it  improb- 


54  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

able  that  disease  will  gain  ingress.  This  probably  belongs  to 
the  consideration  of  individual  hygiene,  and  will  be  considered 
separately.  Aside  from  the  general  applications  which  are  to 
be  considered  as  applying  to  everybody,  there  are  individual 
applications  which  are  to  be  considered  ;  for  example,  in  speaking 
of  tuberculosis,  we  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  disease  seemed 
to  select  those  individuals  possessing  a  hereditary  proclivity  or 
peculiarity  of  tissue  or  structure  which  affords  a  suitable  nidus 
for  the  development  of  tuberculosis.  Herein  we  have  one  ele- 
ment of  a  cause  which  in  all  probability  is  necessary,  at  least 
in  many  diseases,  to  demand  a  superadded  or  second  or  even 
third  element  before  the  disease  will  actually  develop  ;  hence, 
if  we  can  prevent  the  occurrence  of  either  one  or  the  other 
element  or  cause,  or  if  we  can  modify  the  existing  element  or 
cause,  we  maybe  able  to  prevent  the  development  of  the  disease. 
Thus,  in  tuberculosis,  intermarriage  between  members  of  tuber- 
cular families  should  be,  by  every  possible  means,  discouraged, 
as  the  offspring  will  inevitably  inherit  the  proclivities  transmitted 
by  the  parent.  Unfortunately,  the  physician  rarely  has  this  mat- 
ter under  his  control.  It  behooves  us,  however,  to  be  vigilant, 

/  o 

and  exercise  every  effort  for  the  furtherance  of  the  public  good, 
no  matter  how  ineffectual  our  efforts  may  prove. 

Secondly,  where  there  is  a  tendency  toward  the  development 
of  any  disease,  the  environment  of  the  individual  should  be 
such  as  not  to  expose  him  to  the  dangers  of  that  disease. 
Where  there  are  reasons  to  believe  that  the  child  has  inherited  a 
tubercular  tendency,  its  school  life  in  the  earlier  years  and 
its  college  life  in  the  later  years  should  be  so  modified  as  to 
diminish  to  a  minimum  all  those  dangers  arising  from  confine- 
ment, want  of  pure  air  and  out-door  exercise;  and  when  that 
same  individual  comes  to  select  a  calling,  occupation,  or  profes- 
sion, it  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  again  preclude  all 
those  elements  so  well  known  to  be  associated  with  the  develop- 
ment of  tuberculosis;  further  than  this,  such  an  individual 
cannot  risk  association  with  similar  individuals,  and  his  con- 
tinued health  and  well  being  will  depend  upon  the  perpetual 
vigilance  which  he  exercises  in  excluding  himself  from  all 
surroundings  and  all  associates,  as  far  as  maybe  possible,  where 
the  ingress  of  anv  of  the  second  causes  mav  be  found.  Aside 


(JUAKANTINK — ISOLATION.  55 

from  these  general  means,  special  methods  arc  to  be  considered 
for  the  prevention  of  individual  diseases,  either  alone  or  in 
groups.  Thus,  the  malarial  diseases  may  be  driven  from  the 
locality  by  proper  drainage  and  appropriate  agricultural 
pursuits.  Certain  groups  of  the  diseases  are  to  be  combated 
with  upon  certain  definite  principles.  Thus,  the  spread  of  con- 
tagious diseases  is  to  be  prevented  by  quarantine,  depopulation, 
isolation,  or  segregation,  vaccination,  and  disinfection. 

Quarantine,  Isolation,  and  Segregation. 

These  are  peculiarly  applicable  in  diseases  whose  development 
depends  entirely  upon  the  transmission  of  cause  from  individual  to 
individual,  whether  direct  or  through  some  medium.  The  fact 
that  the  disease  may  be  readily  spread  through  transportation  by 
clothing  or  any  other  material  which  has  come  in  contact  with 
the  disease  primarily,  and  secondarily  with  an  individual  sus- 
ceptible to  the  disease,  renders  isolation  necessary. 

Quarantine,  as  originally  used,  implied  a  detention  of  forty 
days  (It.,  Quaranta).  The  term  is  now  intended  to  mean  the 
detention  of  carriers  of  infective  material,  arriving  from  an 
infected  port,  in  order  to  determine  whether  infection  be  present, 
or  a  detention  to  disinfect  material  known  to  be  infected.  The 
term  is  at  present  more  or  less  closely  related  to  the  term 
isolation.  Isolation  is  used  to  indicate  the  separation  of  an 
infected  individual,  or  an  individual  presumed  to  be  infected, 
from  those  likely  to  suffer  from  infection,  or  the  reverse.  Segre- 
gation is  a  term  applied  where  individuals  are  set  apart  on 
account  of  some  infectious  disease  which  is  likely  to  detain  them 
for  an  indefinite  period.  It  is  isolation  practically  on  a  larger 
scale.  As  examples  of  these  three  conditions,  one  may  consider 
a  vessel  detained  from  an  infected  port  as  being  in  quarantine; 
a  child  suffering  from  scarlet  fever  is  isolated  from  its  playmates 
or  the  other  members  of  the  family  ;  leprous  individuals  are 
segregated  in  colonies. 

It  will  probably  answer  our  purpose  if  we  describe  the 
isolation  of  an  individual;  for  whatever  applies  to  an  individual 
is  equally  applicable  to  individuals  in  the  aggregate.  Isolation 
should  imply  not  only  separation  of  the  sick  from  the  well,  but 
more  properly  the  well  should  be  removed  from  the  sick  ;  thus,  in 
a  case  of  smallpox,  it  is  highly  inexpedient  to  remove  the  victim 


56  HEALTH  —  CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

and  then  permit  the  well  to  inhabit  the  room  before  thoroughly 
disinfecting  it.  The  writers  are  quite  confident  that  they  have 
seen  this  mistake  made.  Contagious  diseases  are  not  uncom- 
monly discovered  in  that  stage  when  their  contagion  is  most 
active,  at  which  time  the  physician  orders  the  carpet  removed 
from  the  room,  the  windows  dismantled  of  their  curtains,  all  orna- 
ments carried  out  of  the  room,  and  the  room  left  bare.  Nine 
times  out  of  ten  this  means  merely  conveying  the  contagion- 
carrying  material  out  for  dissemination,  and  leaving  the  patient, 
who  is  already  infected,  in  the  room  where  infection  is  none  the 
less  likely  to  occur.  If  we  could  remove  all  the  material  before 
the  disease  develops,  or  if  the  disease  developed  in  a  bare  room, 
it  would  be  a  great  deal  better,  but  it  does  not  lessen 
the  danger  to  remove  the  draperies  after  the  disease  has  devel- 
oped. Their  removal  is  desirable  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
the  longer  they  are  in  the  room  the  more  difficult  will  be  their 
disinfection  and  the  greater  the  danger  in  their  removal. 

Where  it  can  be  prevented,  the  individual  to  be  isolated  should 
not  be  imprisoned.  The  very  best  hygienic  surroundings  attain- 
able should  be  placed  at  the  command  of  the  sick,  for  it  is  defi- 
nitely proven  that  epidemics  are  aggravated  and  contagious 
diseases  rendered  more  virulent  by  bad  hygiene.  Having 
selected  a  good,  airy  room,  where  ingress  and  egress  are  direct 
from  the  outside  and  not  through  a  room  or  hall,  or,  if  this  be 
not  attainable,  a  room  as  high  in  the  house,  and  as  far  from  the 
inhabited  quarters  as  can  be  had  comes  next  in  preference,  we 
come  to  the  consideration  of  other  matters  pertaining  to  isolation. 
Absolutely  nothing  should  be  carried  into  the  room  which  is  not  a 
matter  of  necessity  ;  napkins  with  the  food,  towels,  extra  bed 
clothing,  etc.,  should  be  strictly  interdicted.  All  clothing  for 
the  patient  when  once  in  the  room  should  not  be  allowed  to  come 
in  contact  with  any  individual  except  the  attendant,  nor  should 
any  Mich  articles  be  used  about  the  house,  or  even  carried  out 
of  the  room,  without  having  been  thoroughly  disinfected,  a  pro- 
ce^s  which  we  will  consider  later. 

I  here  arc  three  periods  at  which  quarantine  or  isolation  or 
segregation  may  be  applicable:  First,  during  the  period  of  incu- 
bation,  that  i\  from  the  time  the  individual  is  exposed  to  the 
<ii-e.«-e  until  the  di^eise  either  develops  or  a  sufficient  period 


OBJECTIONS    TO    QUARANTINE.  57 

has  elapsed  to  render  it  reasonably  certain  that  the  individual  is 
not  suffering  from  a  contagious  or  infectious  disease.  Second, 
during  the  time  when  the  individual  may  be  suffering  from  a 
contagious  or  infectious  disease.  Third,  the  period  following 
the  disease,  while  the  individual  is  still  in  a  condition  liable  to 
transmit  the  infectious  material  to  others.  Thus  in  smallpox 
and  scarlet  fever,  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  after  the 
symptoms  of  the  disease  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared, 
there  still  remains  the  danger  of  infection,  in  the  first  instance 
from  the  scabs  still  adhering  to  the  surface,  and  in  the  second 
from  the  scaling  of  the  epidermis  which  follows  the  scarlatinal 
rash.  It  matters  little  in  which  stage  it  has  been  necessary  to 
detain  the  individual,  at  the  termination  of  such  detention  dis- 
infection should  always  be  thoroughly  carried  out.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  individual  detained  through  the  pre- 
sumed period  of  incubation  should  have  the  person  and  all 
clothing  subjected  to  rigid  disinfection,  as  he  may  be  the  carrier 
of  disease,  although  not  himself  suffering  ;  and  in  order  to  make 
assurance  doubly  sure  the  disinfection  should  take  place  prior 
to  detention  and  again  before  release.  The  time  necessary  for 
detention  varies  greatly  with  different  diseases  and  also  at  differ- 
ent times  in  the  same  disease.  By  reason  of  these  variations,  it 
is  necessary,  where  arbitrary  rules  are  to  be  laid  clown,  to  err 
on  the  safe  side  and  make  the  detention  extremely  prolonged  ;  it 
is  safer,  better,  and  more  just  to  the  individual  and  to  the  com- 
munity to  detain  ten  days  over  the  extreme  limit  of  probable 
infection,  than  to  release  the  individual  ten  hours  before  the 
impending  outbreak  of  the  disease  occurs. 

Objections  to  Quarantine.  The  objections  to  quarantine  lie 
largely  in  the  fact  that  as  managed  under  ordinary  conditions, 
it  is  inefficient,  unreliable,  and  unsatisfactory.  There  are  so 
man\'  things  which  either  directl}'  or  indirectly  counteract  the 
beneficent  influence  of  quarantine  that  not  a  few  sanitarians  now 
discourage  it.  Navigation  and  railroad  companies  use  all  pos- 
sible influence  to  escape  the  expense  incident  to  quarantine. 
Personal  friendship  and  political  pull  strain  ever}'  effort  to  pre- 
vent the  vicissitudes  incident  to  detention  ;  add  to  these  the 
individual  prejudice  against  detaining  the  healthy,  the  sick,  and 
the  convalescent,  each  offering  excellent  excuses  to  evade  quar- 
4 


;8  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

antinc,  and  we  have  a  wave  of  power  and  influence  by  which  the 
most  rigid  sanitarian  will,  at  times,  be  overcome.* 

It  may  be  largely  maintained  that  the  objections  above  pointed 
out  are  due  to  the  faulty  method  and  indifferent  officering  of 
sanitary  powers,  but  while  man  is  human  and  the  existing  diffi- 
culties endure,  these  objections  will  probably  be  maintained,  and 
with  more  or  less  justice. 

There  have  been  no  well-founded  objections  raised  to  isolation 
and  segregation,  as  in  leprosy,  and  as  must  be  sooner  or  later  in 
syphilis  and  tuberculosis,  when  the  protection  of  the  community 
shall  be  demanded  by  its  individual  members. 

The  duration  of  isolation  varies  in  different  diseases,  and  as 
this  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance,  we  will  now  proceed  to  con- 
sider it  more  or  less  in  detail.  What  diseases  do  and  what  do 
not  demand  quarantine  or  isolation  is  a  polemical  subject ;  and 
we  content  ourselves  ^in  prescribing  rules  for  the  guidance 
of  physicians  which,  if  they  err,  err  on  the  side  of  safety.  We 
do  not  consider  that  chicken-pox  demands  isolation  ;  however, 
there  may  be  children  in  the  house  whom,  cither  on  account 
of  weakness,  debilitated  health,  or  some  existing  disease,  it  may 
be  important  to  protect  from  infection.  During  epidemics  of 
smallpox,  isolation  may  be  necessary  for  diagnostic  purposes. 

In  many  of  the  States  and  cities  different  diseases  are  consid- 
ered as  contagious  and  dangerous,  and  often  it  is  necessary  to 
isolate  very  simple  diseases  in  order  to  satisfy  the  community 
and,  in  n<>  small  number  of  cases,  badly  constructed  laws  and 
Board  of  Health  regulations.  While  considering  the  isolation 
of  diseases,  we  are  to  remember  that  occasionally  it  will  be 
necessary  to  isolate  healthy  individuals  ;  for  example,  where 
parties  are  leaving  an  infected  area,  or  where  an  individual  has 
been  exposed  to  the  contagion  of  some  epidemic  disease,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  confine  him  for  a  certain  period  in  order  to 
ascertain  if  he  be  infected.  This  period,  from  the  time  of  expo- 

*  I  Hiring  tlic  recent  threatened  epidemic  of  cholera"  in  Philadelphia  (1892),  a  mem- 
ber of  tin;  Hoard  of  1  leallh  of  tlie  City  of  Philadelphia,  on  his  own  responsibility  lilnr- 
atcd  01  it-  of  the  passengers.  Fortunately,  nothing  occurred,  l>ut  had  cholera  been 
;iboard  and  the  man  exposed  to  the  disease,  the  community  was  in  as  imminent  dan- 
};--r  as  though  the  whole  ship-load  had  been  liberated,  the  difference  bung  only  in 
dei-ree. 


QUARANTINE — ACTINOMVCOSIS — CHOLERA.  59 

sure  to  the  appearance  of  symptoms,  is  known  as  the  period  of 
incubation,  and  can  only  be  approximately  estimated,  as  there 
seems  to  be  sufficiently  well-marked  differences  in  individuals  as 
to  the  length  of  time  which  a  disease  incubates.  The  estimate 
given  herein  is  sufficiently  wide,  it  is  believed,  to  allow  for  such 
variations. 

Actinomycosis.  All  animals  suffering  from  the  disease  should 
be  killed  and  the  carcasses  incinerated.  In  man  such  isolation 
as  is  compatible  with  his  surroundings  should  be  established. 
There  is  evidence  to  believe  that  the  sputum  may  communicate 
the  disease,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  its  disinfection.  Nothing 
is  known  of  the  incubation  period  in  actinomycosis. 

Anthrax.  Animals  suffering  from  this  disease  should  be 
slaughtered  and  their  bodies  incinerated.  Animals  exposed  to 
the  contagion  should  be  quarantined.  The  strictest  -regulations 
should  be  established  in  order  to  prevent  the  skin,  horns,  wool, 
or  any  part  of  the  animal  from  becoming  articles  of  traffic.  In 
man  the  greatest  care  is  demanded  concerning  all  excreta,  dress- 
ings, clothing,  etc.  Thorough  isolation  should  be  imperative. 
As  the  microorganism  which  causes  this  disease  is  one  of  the 
hardest  to  kill,  no  germicide  short  of  the  very  highest  attainable 
temperatures  should  be  trusted,  and  hence  absolute  destruction 
of  everything  likely  to  prove  infectious  must  be  demanded. 

Ccrebro-spinal  Meningitis.  Careful  isolation  in  large,  airy 
rooms.  Disinfection  of  all  material  coming  from  the  patient. 
Isolation  should  be  maintained  long  into  convalescence  and 
followed  by  thorough  care  in  bathing.  Disinfection  of  all 
clothing,  beds,  etc.  The  incubation  period  is  unknown. 

Varicella,  or  CJdckcn-Pox.  Under  ordinary  conditions  this 
disease  does  not  require  isolation,  on  account  of  its  extreme 
mildness  and  the  unlikelihood  of  its  giving  rise  to  anv  serious 

o  o  * 

complications.  However,  during  an  epidemic  of  smallpox  all 
cases  of  varicella  should  be  treated  exactly  as  varioloid.  This  is 
necessary  on  account  of  the  extreme  possibility  of  smallpox 
being  mistaken  for  chicken-pox.  The  period  of  incubation  is 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  Cases  should  be  isolated  for  not  less 
than  nineteen  days. 

Cholera .  Asiatic.  Thorough  and  careful  isolation  of  the 
patient.  Disinfection  of  all  dejecta,  soiled  linen,  and  even-thing 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  patient,  careful  investigation 


6O  HEALTH CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

as  to  the  presumed  source  of  the  infection,  including  the  exam- 
ination of  water  supply,  sewerage,  drainage,  plumbing,  etc.  The 
period  of  incubation  in  cholera  varies  more  than  in  other  com- 
mon epidemic  diseases.  Some  writers  state  that  it  may  come 
on  in  a  few  hours,  others  in  from  a  week  to  ten  days.  If  an 
individual  who  has  been  in  the  cholera  district  is  free  from  the 
disease  three  weeks  after  leaving  the  infected  area,  the  proba- 
bility of  his  taking  cholera  may  be  considered  as  nil.  As  it  is 
probable  that  a  normal  acid  condition  of  the  stomach  lessens 
the  tendency  to  the  inception  of  the  disease,  great  care  should 
be  exerted  among  the  healthy  to  maintain  perfect  digestion  ; 
slight  diarrhea  should  have  prompt  attention,  the  sale  of  fruits 
should  be  restricted,  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  towns  and 
cities  raised  to  the  highest  possible  standard.  All  food,  includ- 
ing water,  should  be  cooked  before  its  ingestion ;  the  greatest 
care  should  be  manifested  in  the  inspection  of  milk,  by  reason  of 
the  extreme  liability  for  dealers  to  adulterate  with  water  which 
may  be  infected. 

Membranous  Laryngitis,  or  Croup.  The  infectious  character 
of  this  disease  and  the  difficulty  in  differentiating  between  it  and 
diphtheria  is  so  great,  that  it  demands  the  same  sanitary  precau- 
tions. (See  Diphtheria.) 

Dengue.  The  contagiousness  of  this  disease  has  not  been 
entirely  settled.  Isolation  should,  however,  be  insisted  upon 
and  continued,  in  large,  airy  rooms,  until  convalescence  is  well 
established.  By  some  municipalities  the  disease  is  quarantin- 
able,  and,  as  the  infectious  element  is  not  known,  disinfection  of 
all  materials  likely  to  be  the  source  of  contagion  should  be 
insisted  upon.  Period  of  incubation  three  to  five  days. 

Diphtheria.  Isolation  until  after  all  throat  symptoms  have  dis- 
appeared. Care  as  to  the  disinfection  of  all  materials  coming 
frcm  the  isolated  room,  exclusion  of  all  communication  between 
the  cases  and  children,  or  even  adults.  Diphtheria  in  a  house 
should  demand  careful  inspection  of  all  plumbing,  sewerage, 
ventilation,  and  possible  accumulation  of  decomposing  matter  of 
any  kind.  Disinfection  of  all  rooms,  clothing,  bed,  etc.,  neces- 
sary. The  period  of  incubation  is  from  two  to  four  days  in  some 
epidemics,  to  ten  or  twelve  in  others. 

Dysentery.     Should    dysentery  become  epidemic  a   thorough 


ERYSIPELAS — INFLUENZA — MEASLES.  6 1 

investigation  should  be  made  into  the  water,  milk,  and  vegetable 
supply.  Disinfection  of  intestinal  dejecta.  Incubation  depend- 
ent entirely  upon  the  severity  of  the  poison. 

Erysipelas.  Medical  cases  evince  but  slight  tendency  to  spread. 
In  surgical  cases  it  must  be  thoroughly  isolated  and  all  possible 
avenues  for  conveyance  closed.  Disinfection  of  dressings,  rooms, 
furniture,  bedding,  etc.,  necessary.  Incubation  three  to  seven 
days. 

Epidemic  Erysipelatous  Fever.  Isolation  should  probably  be 
resorted  to.  Disinfection  of  all  clothing,  beds,  etc.  Flint  is  of 
the  opinion  that  its  contagiousness  cannot  be  considered  as  estab- 
lished ;  in  the  absence  of  positive  knowledge  the  disease  should 
be  considered  as  feebly  contagious.  The  period  of  incubation 
is  not  certain,  and  probably  varies  from  five  to  nine  days. 

Glanders.  As  this  disease  is  nearly  always  communicated  to 
man  from  the  lower  animals,  its  prevention  lies  largely  in  the 
killing  and  destruction  of  infected  animals.  Should  the  disease 
arise  in  man,  he  should  have  exactly  the  same  hygienic  consid- 
eration as  already  pointed  out  under  actinomycosis.  Incubation 
in  the  acute  form  from  three  to  four  days.  Nothing  is  known  as 
to  the  incubation  of  the  chronic  form. 

Influenza.  The  method  of  spread  in  this  disease  is  very 
obscure.  However,  quarantine  against  its  invasion  has  been  suc- 
cessfully maintained.  The  period  of  incubation  varies  from  a 
few  hours  (?)  to  three  or  four  days. 

Leprosy.  Segregation  of  the  leprous  is  demanded.  Marriage 
should  be  positively  prohibited.  Disinfection  of  all  materials 
coming  in  contact  with  the  patient  must  be  insisted  upon.  Good 
hygienic  surroundings  and  scrupulous  cleanliness  apparently 
limit  its  spread. 

J\Ialta  Fever.  Depopulation  of  the  infected  area,  isolation  of 
the  cases,  abundant  ventilation,  and,  although  the  contagiousness 
is  still  a  matter  of  greatest  doubt,  the  disease  is  to  be  so  consid- 
ered, to  a  feeble  degree.  Incubation  period  lasts  until  some  time 
into  the  second  week. 

Rnbeola,  or  Measles.  Isolation  until  all  evidence  of  the  erup- 
tion has  passed  away.  The  disease  is  usually  so  mild  as  to 
rarely  demand  any  special  quarantine  consideration.  As  the 
disease  has  been  conveyed  in  clothing,  disinfection  of  all  materials 


62  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

coming  in  contact  with  the  disease  is  demanded.  The  limits  of 
incubation  are  variable,  from  seven  to  twenty  days,  usually  about 
ten  days. 

Epidemic  Parotitis,  or  Mumps,  is  so  extremely  mild  that  isola- 
tion under  ordinary  circumstances  is  not  to  be  thought  of.  If, 
however,  it  should  be  deemed  necessary  the  disease  is  to  be 
treated  exactly  as  other  contagious  diseases,  isolation  being 
maintained  long  into  convalescence.  The  period  of  incubation 
varies  from  five  to  twenty  days,  rarely  longer. 

Relapsing  Fci'cr.  Careful  isolation  in  large,  airy  rooms,  with 
abundant  ventilation,  as  it  is  probable  that  the  breathing  and 
cutaneous  exhalations  communicate  the  disease.  It  does  not 
seem  evident  that  the  intestinal  dejecta  contain  the  poison, 
nevertheless,  they  should  be  treated  as  elements  of  danger  until 
our  knowledge  on  the  point  is  more  definitely  settled.  The 
period  of  incubation  varies  from  three  to  twelve  days  ;  usually 
the  disease  manifests  itself  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  day.  As 
relapses  occur  as  late  as  the  fortieth  day,  the  after  detention 
must  of  necessity  be  prolonged  in  order  to  establish  positive 
knowledge  of  complete  recovery. 

Scarlatina,  or  Scarlet  Fever.  Thorough  isolation  and  greatest 
possible  care  as  to  transmission  by  carrying  from  the  sick  to 
the  well  through  the  carelessness  of  the  parent  or  friends.  The 
isolation  should  last  from  three  to  five  days  after  all  desquamation 
has  ceased.  The  patient  should  then  be  given  a  bath,  followed 
by  disinfection  of  the  skin,  and  removed  from  the  room,  which  is 
to  be  thoroughly  disinfected,  including  bed-clothing,  clothing, 
furniture,  walls,  etc.  As  the  desquamating  epithelium  retains 
the  contagious  element,  great  care  should  be  maintained  until 
the  process  is  completed.  The  period  of  incubation  is  from 
three  to  fourteen  days. 

Parasitic  Stomatitis,  or  Thrush,  Noma,  or  Gangrenous  Stoma- 
titis. Cases  should  be  prohibited  all  association  with  other 
children,  (ireatest  care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  feeding 
utensils,  either  knife,  fork  or  spoon,  or  nursing  bottle,  should 
not  come  into  use  by  any  other  individual.  Disinfection  of 
>tools,  clothing,  feeding  utensils,  etc.  Nothing  is  known  of  the 
period  of  incubation. 

'let anus.     As    tetanus   ordinarily  occurs    in   private    families, 


TUBERCULOSIS TYPHOID  FEVER.  03 

isolation  is  not  necessary,  but  in  armies  and  where  there  arc- 
collected  individuals  suffering  from  wounds  and  other  surgical 
diseases,  tetanus  should  be  kept  apart  and  the  greatest  possible 
care  exerted  to  restrict  or  limit  its  spread.  Disinfection  of 
all  dressings,  bedding,  clothing,  instruments,  etc.,  should  be 
thorough,  before  allowing  them  to  come  in  contact  with  another 
patient.  A  special  nurse  should  be  assigned  the  case  and 
allowed  to  attend  no  other.  Incubation,  ten  to  fifteen  days. 

Tuberculosis  Pulmonalis,  or  Consumption.  This  widespread 
disease  demands  great  care  for  its  prevention  which  we  cannot 
in  the  present  condition  of  the  public  mind  apply.  Marriage  of 
tuberculous  individuals  should  be  prohibited  and  association 
with  the  healthy  rendered  impossible.  Disinfection  of  all 
sputum  while  it  is  in  the  moist  state  and  destruction  of  all 
materials  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Segregation  in  large, 
airy  rooms;  especial  care  is  to  be  taken  in  preventing  individ- 
uals with  an  inherited  tubercular  proclivity  from  coming  in 
contact  with  a  patient  already  suffering  from  tuberculosis. 
Houses  or  apartments  which  have  been  occupied  by  tubercular 
patients  should  be  disinfected,  clothing  and  ornaments  in- 
cluded.* 

The  laity  are  not,  unfortunately,  as  well  aware  of  the  fact,  as 
are  the  members  of  the  medical  profession,  that  there  is  ten  times 
more  evidence  of  the  contagiousness  of  tuberculosis,  in  our 
climate,  than  there  is  of  leprosy.  The  incubation  period  is 
unknown,  if  such  a  period  exists. 

Ty pi toid  Fever.  Careful  and  thorough  search  for  the  origin  of 
the  infection;  water  supply,  sewerage,  drainage,  ventilation,  etc., 
to  be  gone  over  carefully.  Thorough  and  effective  disinfection 
of  all  excreta,  clothing,  bedding,  etc.,  which  has  come  in  contact 
with  the  patient  and  as  thorough  isolation  as  may  be  practicable 
in  private  families.  So  far  as  now  known,  no  one  has  advised 
careful  isolation.  The  period  of  incubation  in  this  very  common 
disease  has  long  been  a  matter  of  considerable  debate.  From 
reliable  data  it  would  appear  that  its  development  occurs  within 
two  weeks  following  the  exposure,  although  some  are  of  the 


*  Earrings,  the  property  of  a  tuberculous  patient,  have  been  known  to  communicate 
the  disease  when  worn  by  one  susceptible  to  the  disease. 


64  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

opinion  that  it  may  develop  as  early  as  the  sixth  and  as  late  as 
the  twenty- fourth  day. 

Typhus  Ft'i'cr.  The  most  thorough  and  efficient  isolation 
necessary  ;  depopulation  of  the  infected  district,  abundance  of 
fresh  air,  outdoor  tenting;  if  in  the  house,  abundant  ventilation 
in  large,  airy  rooms.  Flint  says  :  "  A  single  patient  in  a  spacious, 
well-ventilated  room  will  rarely  communicate  the  disease." 
Thorough  disinfection  of  clothing,  habitation,  etc.  Extreme 
cleanliness,  and  perfect  sanitation  in  infected  areas.  Contagious- 
ness exists  until  late  into  convalescence,  and  hence  great  care 
should  be  manifested  lest  the  disease  be  communicated  by  too 
early  removal.  The  period  of  incubation  is  most  extraordinary 
in  range,  the  disease  usually  appearing  from  the  seventh  to  the 
twelfth  day ;  however,  in  rare  cases,  it  does  not  manifest  itself 
before  the  twenty-first  day  and  even  slightly  later ;  at  other 
times  the  symptoms  come  on  within  from  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours  after  exposure. 

Smallpox,  or  Variola.  The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  largely 
based  upon  the  success  of  vaccination,  a  matter  into  which  it  is 
not  necessary  for  us  to  go.  When  the  disease  breaks  out,  most 
thorough  isolation  must  be  established,  all  communication  with 
the  infected  house  should  be  prohibited,  disinfection  of  every- 
thing absolutely  necessary.  Isolation  should  be  in  large,  airy 
rooms,  and  the  patient  should  not  be  allowed  to  associate  with 
the  healthy  until  after  all  crusts  have  disappeared  and  repeated 
baths  have  removed  all  evidence  of  the  eruption  except,  of 
course,  the  scars.  No  clothing,  either  personal  or  bed  clothing, 
should  be  allowed  to  leave  the  infected  area ;  it  should  all  be 
burned  ;  house,  bedsteads,  and  furniture  of  every  kind  disin- 
fected ;  window  hangings,  carpets,  etc.,  treated  exactly  as  cloth- 
ing. Smallpox  usually  manifests  itself  in  twelve  days.  It  may, 
however,  appear  much  earlier,  and  in  rare  cases  may  not  develop 
until  the  twentieth  da}-. 

Modified  Smallpox,  or  Varioloid,  is  as  communicable  as  true 
smallpox  and  demands  the  same  care.  The  incubation  period 
is  about  the  same  as  true  smallpox.  The  danger  of  mistaking 
varicella  during  an  epidemic  is  so  great  that  it  had  best  be 
treated  as  variolnid  ;  in  suspicious  cases  never  the  reverse. 

//  'hooping  Coiii;/i.     The  disease  may  be  communicated  after  an 


YELLOW    FEVER PLAGUE — INOCULATION.  65 

isolation  of  several  weeks.  Period  of  incubation  varies,  but  is 
most  commonly  about  ten  days,  varying  from  six  to  fifteen  days. 

Yellow  Ffirff—  The  contagiousness  of  this  disease  is  not  as 
yet  proven,  indeed,  it  is  debatable  if  it  be  directly  contagious. 
The  prevention  of  its  spread  will  depend  largely  upon  isolation 
of  individuals,  disinfection  of  all  materials  coming  away  from 
the  sick,  depopulation  of  the  infected  district,  careful  attention 
given  to  the  water  and  food  supply,  including  milk.  Although 
cold  will  destroy  the  disease,  as  is  proven  by  frost,  still,  the  appli- 
cability of  cold  on  a  large  scale  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated. 
One  of  the  essential  features  is  to  prevent  unacclimatized 
individuals  from  entering  the  yellow  fever  area  during  an  epi- 
demic. Repeated  ablutions  and  sterilization  of  clothing  to  ter- 
minate the  isolation,  which  should  be  prolonged.  The  period 
of  incubation  varies  from  twenty-four  hours  to  seven  days.  As 
a  rule,  it  manifests  itself  from  the  first  to  third  day. 

Oriental  Plague.  For  the  prevention  of  Oriental  plague,  or 
bubonic  plague,  and  that  unique  disease  known  as  the  "  sweating 
sickness,"  there  seems  nothing  which  is  so  important  as  raising 
the  general  sanitary  condition  to  the  highest  possible  standard. 
This  seems  to  determine  the  subsidence  of  the  epidemic.  Where 
this  cannot  be  carried  out  readily,  it  is  probably  better  to  depopu- 
late the  infected  area  entirely.  Isolation  should  be  maintained, 
and  as  nothing  is  known  of  the  etiology  of  these  diseases,  they 
should  be  treated  as  though  due  to  a  microorganism  possessing 
unusual  resistance. 

Vaccination  or  Inoculation. 

The  prevention  of  disease,  more  especially  the  infectious  and 
contagious  diseases,  by  means  of  inoculation,  is  rapidly  assum- 
ing importance.  The  suppression  of  smallpox  by  means  of 
vaccination  led  observers,  more  particularly  Pasteur,  in  France, 
to  investigate  similar  processes  in  the  prevention  of  other  dis- 
eases. This  he  tried  first  in  chicken  septicemia  with  apparent 
success ;  later  the  same  principle  was  applied  to  rabies,  and, 
since  this  well-known  experiment,  attempts  have  been  made  to 
establish  the  process  successfully  in  the  treatment  of  various 
infectious  diseases.  The  facts  are  as  yet  too  recent  for  us  to 
draw  any  definite  conclusions;  it  is,  however,  probable  that  cer- 
tain diseases,  more  particularly  those  having  a  tendency  to  run  a 


66  HEALTH CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

definite  course  and  to  be  self  limited,  will  afford  equal  oppor- 
tunity for  the  introduction  of  this  method  of  preventive  medicine, 
as  is  well  proven  and  now  universally  adopted  in  smallpox. 

Induced  immunity  varies  in  degree  and  may  be  brought 
about  in  more  than  one  way.  For  example  :  the  microorganism 
causing  the  disease  may  be  cultivated  under  unsuitable  condi- 
tions, diminishing  its  viability  and  the  activity  of  its  pathogenesis. 
The  animal  to  be  rendered  immune  may  then  be  inoculated 
with  this  culture.  There  may  or  may  not  be  a  light  form  of  the 
disease  following;  if  there  is  not,  the  animal  will  again  be 
inoculated  by  a  more  virulent  culture,  and  thus  through  pro- 
gressive series  of  more  and  more  virulent  cultures,  and  finally 
exposure  to  the  immediate  contagion  of  the  disease  in  question. 
The  immunity  so  induced  varies  in  its  duration.  This  is  not 
considered  as  efficient  and  long  acting  as  the  immunity 
acquired  by  the  actual  inception  and  progressive  development 
of  the  disease  itself.  Another  method  of  inducing  immunity  is 
by  introducing  gradually  into  the  system  the  chemical  products 
of  the  organism  which  causes  the  disease,  and  imparting  to  the 
system  a  condition  of  tissue  which  resists  invasion  by  the  organism 
itself.  Again,  the  process  has  been  modified  by  introducing  into 
the  economy  of  the  animal,  by  the  hypodermic  method,  blood 
serum  from  an  animal  possessing  immunity,  cither  hereditary, 
acquired  or  induced.  These  methods  not  only  promise  well,  as  to 
the  induction  of  immunity,  but  are  also  applicable  in  the  treatment 
of  the  disease.  If  the  experiments  on  animals  afford  a  criterion, 
we  have  much  to  hope  from  acquired  immunity  ;  as  to  man,  we 
have  too  little  evidence  at  present  from  which  to  draw  any 
conclusive  inferences.  Tetanus  has  been  successfully  treated  by 
the  serum  of  immuni/.ed  animals. 

Disinfectants,    Deodorants,  Means   for    Securing  Disinfec- 
tion, Agents  to  be  Used. 

Disinfection  means  a  destruction  of  infective  material,  and 
agents  used  for  securing  disinfection  are  known  as  disinfectants. 
Recently,  through  modern  surgical  nomenclature  antiseptics  have 
been  confused  with  disinfectants.  Antiseptics  should  properly  in- 
clude those  agents  which  retard  the  growth  of  germs  without 
destroying  them.  Disinfectants,  on  the  other  hand,  are  true 
germicides,  or  germ  destrovers.  A  weak  solution  of  a  clis- 


GERMICIDES — PHYSIOLOGICAL   AND    CHEMICAL.  67 

infectant  or  a  germicide  is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  an  antiseptic ;  the 
reverse,  however,  is  by  no  means  true.  Thus  cold  is  an  anti- 
septic, but  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  sufficiently  low  degree  to 
be  depended  upon  for  germicidal  purposes.  Disinfectants  or 
germicides  may  be  divided  into  physiological,  chemical,  and 
thermal. 

Physiological  germicides.  Among  the  physiological  disinfect- 
ants or  germicides  we  are  to  include  some  of  the  secretions  and 
excretions  of  the  body,  blood,  and  serum,  and  some  of  the  cellular 
elements  which  constitute  a  part  of  the  animal  organism.  Thus 
it  has  been  shown  that  certain  juices  of  the  body  arc  destructive 
to  some  infective  agents,  the  cholera  bacillus  being  destroyed 
by  a  normal  gastric  juice.  The  theory  of  phagocytosis  is  based 
upon  the  apparent  destruction  of  bacteria  by  the  white  blood 
corpuscles,  thus  placing  them  among  the  physiological  germi- 
cides. That  this  theory  may  or  may  not  be  tenable  it  is  not  our 
function  to  debate;  however,  it  has  so  far  fairly  well  combated 
the  antagonism  which  threatened  to  engulf  it.  Upon  the  activity 
of  the  physiological  germicides  depends  that  condition  which  we 
have  designated  as  inherited  or  hereditary  immunity ,and  possibly, 
other  forms  of  immunity  as  well. 

The  chemical  germicides  which  have  been  brought  forward  at 
different  times  are  innumerable.  Practical  experience,  cost,  and 
efficiency  have,  however,  restricted  these,  by  the  slow  process  of 
exclusion,  to  a  very  few  that  may  now  be  depended  upon.  Un- 
fortunately, none  of  these  are  applicable  under  all  conditions,  and 
are  to  be  used  differently,  depending  upon  the  material  to  be 
disinfected  and  other  considerations  which  \ve  will  discuss  sep- 
arately. 

Among  the  solids  we  have  chlorid  of  lime,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper,  chlorid  of  zinc,  and 
chlorinated  soda.  These  may  be  used  either  in  a  powder  or  in 
a  solution — the  chlorid  of  lime  commonly  used  in  powder;  the 
sulphates  of  iron  and  copper  and  the  chlorid  of  zinc  ma}-  be  ap- 
plied in  the  powder  form  ;  the  best  results  will  be  attained  by 
using  them  in  solution.  The  chlorid  of  lime  and  the  chlorinated 
lime  differ  but  very  little  ;  it  will  be  ordinarily  found  that,  as 
purchased  from  the  shops,  the  two  are  practically  identical. 
Chlorinated  lime  is  used,  as  a  rule,  in  a  solution  of  not  less  than 


68  HEALTH CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

four  per  cent.,  and  should  contain  fully  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
available  chlorin.  Corrosive  sublimate  should  be  used  in  an 
aqueous  solution,  not  weaker  than  one  to  five  hundred,  and 
preferably  of  a  strength  of  one  to  one  hundred  where  very  great 
resistance  is  anticipated,  as  in  destruction  of  the  bacillus  of 
anthrax  or  its  spores.  The  great  objection  to  the  corrosive 
sublimate  lies  in  the  fact  that  when  brought  in  contact  with 
albumin  it  is  precipitated  as  the  albuminate  of  mercury,  which 
has  no  germicidal  action  worthy  of  consideration.  Recent  ex- 
periments have  seemed  to  prove  that  a  combination  of  tartaric 
acid  with  corrosive  sublimate  lessens  the  probability  of  its 
decomposition.  This,  however,  for  sanitary  disinfection,  is 
scarcely  feasible.  In  the  writers'  laboratory  Mr.  Spencer,  now 
Dr.  Spencer,  demonstrated  that  a  solution  of  peroxid  of  hydro- 
den  (15  volumes),  combined  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate (any  strength),  in  a  proportion  of  one  part  of  hydrogen 
peroxid  solution  to  three  parts  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  solu- 
tion, prevented  the  corrosive  sublimate  from  being  precipitated 
when  coming  in  contact  with  albumin  ;  if  this  experiment  be 
verified  by  further  experimentation,  the  combination  will  be  very 
useful  in  sanitary  disinfection.  The  objections  to  chlorinated 
lime  are  urgent;  it  is  an  extremely  active  bleaching  agent,  more 
or  less  rapidly  destroying  all  materials  with  which  it  may  come 
in  contact,  and,  taken  all  in  all,  is  of  doubtful  efficiency  unless 
used  in  concentrated  solutions.  One  great  objection  to  all  dis- 
infectants possessing  an  active  or  repugnant  odor  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  laity  are  liable  to  fear  their  use  in  a  sufficiently  concen- 
trated form,  and  commercial  cupidity  extremely  likely  to 
humbug  the  public,  including,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  a  part  of  the 
medical  profession,  by  loud-smelling  agents  of  worse  than 
questionable  virtues.  The  lime  preparations  depend  upon  the 
chlorin  which  they  contain  for  a  great  amount  of  their  useful- 
ness. As  ordinarily  purchased  in  the  shops  they  are  not  assayed, 
and  the  containers,  being  pervious,  permit  of  such  abundant 
escape  of  the  chlorin,  that  no  constant  percentage  of  the  active 
disinfecting  agent  can  be  depended  upon.  Sulphate  of  iron  is  a 
fairly  efficient  disinfectant,  if  we  may  believe  the  experiments 
which  have  been  made  by  several  observers.  Its  efficiency  is 
a  matter  of  sufficient  doubt  to  render  its  use  not  advisable.  Sul- 


GERMICIDES — CHEMICAL.  69 

phate  of  copper  and  chloric!  of  zinc  are  efficient  if  used  in  strong 
solutions,  the  copper  in  not  less  than  ten  per  cent,  solutions  and 
the  chlorid  of  zinc  slightly  stronger,  say  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
per  cent.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  all  of  these  solutions 
are  too  strong  for  disinfecting  the  hands. 

Carbolic  acid  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  disinfectant. 
It  should  be  used  in  very  strong  solutions,  and  the  making  of 
these  solutions  is  an  important  matter,  as  upon  that  depends  the 
efficiency  of  the  germicide.  A  five  per  cent,  solution  of  the  car- 
bolic acid  is  usually  prepared  by  adding  the  acid  to  sufficient  water 
and  mixing.  A  solution  so  made  is  almost  useless,  and  if  care- 
fully examined  the  acid  will  be  found  suspended  in  small  drops 
throughout  the  mixture  ;  it  is  not  a  solution.  In  order  to  prepare 
carbolic  acid  solutions,  the  acid  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  glycerin  before  it  is  added  to  the  water;  if 
the  glycerin  and  acid  be  thoroughly  mixed,  very  little  difficulty 
will  be  found  in  securing  a  solution  in  the  water.  The  writers 
are  inclined  to  think  that  the  weak  solutions  of  carbolic  acid, 
meaning,  thereby,  solutions  of  five  per  cent,  or  less  in  strength, 
are  of  questionable  value,  and  should  never  be  used  where  a 
disinfectant  is  desired  which  may  be  depended  upon.  When 
typhoid  fever  bacilli  can  be  cultivated  in  a  one-half  per  cent, 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  one  is  to  doubt  the  efficiency  of  a  five 
per  cent,  solution  as  a  germicide;  we  cannot  for  a  moment 
believe  that  solutions  weaker  than  ten  per  cent,  are  to  be 
depended  upon.  Ten  per  cent,  cannot  be  made  in  water  except 
by  the  use  of  glycerin. 

Among  the  gases  or  vapors  which  may  be  used  as  disinfect- 
ants, we  have  clilorin,  broinin,  and  uniin  as  the  most  active,  while 
that  most  commonly  used  is  sulphurous  acid  gas. 

Broinin  is  probably  the  most  efficient  and  thorough  disinfect- 
ant which  we  possess  in  the  gaseous  form  ;  its  germicidal  powers 
are  something  tremendous,  and  its  penetration  fairly  good.  The 
matter  of  penetration  is  something  not  usuallytaken  into  consider- 
ation when  dealing  with  the  disinfection  of  large  quantities  of  mate- 
rials. It  is,  however,  vastly  important.  Observations  made  in 
the  writers'  laboratory  by  Kyle,  Spencer,  and  others  have 
proved,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  bromin  is  twenty  times  as  efficient,  in 


JO  HEALTH CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

a  small  space,  not  exceeding  possibly  eight  cubic  feet,  as  sul- 
phurous acid  gas. 

The  objections  to  bromin  are  the  extremely  irritating  char- 
acter of  the  gas  and  the  fact  that  its  high  specific  gravity  ren- 
ders its  diffusion  unsatisfactory.  In  a  small  space,  reasonably 
tight,  there  is  no  agent  whose  efficiency  is  more  to  be  depended 
upon  than  bromin.  One  ounce  of  bromin  should  be  used  for 
each  twenty  cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  disinfected.  This  is  effi- 
cient but  expensive. 

lodin  may  be  vaporized  in  a  room  by  means  of  heat  applied 
to  a  saucer  or  stove-lid  upon  which  the  iodin  has  been  placed. 
The  objections  to  iodin  are  the  same  as  bromin  ;  furthermore  it 
is  likely  to  crystallize  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  thus  lose 
its  efficiency,  making  it  less  available  than  either  bromin  or 
chlorin,  and  weak  in  diffusion  and  penetration. 

Cldorin.  This  gas  is  undoubtedly  the  most  efficient  disin- 
fecting agent  that  we  possess,  with  the  probable  exception  of 
bromin.  Where  it  can  be  applied  in  sufficient  volume  it  is  not 
only  a  thoroughly  efficient  disinfectant,  but  an  excellent  de- 
odorant as  well.  As  already  stated,  it  is  the  active  principle 
in  the  chlorid  of  lime  and  chlorinated  soda.  The  British 
Army  Medical  Regulations  advise  that  for  every  one  thousand 
cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  disinfected,  the  following  should  be  used  : 
Common  salt,  8  oz.  ;  manganese  dioxid,  2  oz.  ;  sulphuric  acid, 
2  oz.  ;  water,  3  oz. ;  the  salt  and  dioxid  of  manganese  should 
be  mixed  in  an  earthen  vessel  and  placed  upon  a  bed  of 
sand,  the  sulphuric  acid  and  water  should  be  mixed  and  allowed 
to  cool,  after  which  the  mixture  is  poured  over  the  other  in- 
gredients in  the  basin.  The  efficiency  of  chlorin  as  a  disinfectant 
is  enhanced  by  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the  room  ;  this  may 
be  accomplished  by  suspending  in  the  room  moistened  sheets  ; 
or  1'arkes  recommends  that  the  walls  and  floors  be  moistened,  a 
procedure  which  would  insure  their  being  thoroughly  bleached. 
The  objection  to  chlorin  is  its  highly  irritating  character  and 
the  fact  that  it  bleaches  organic  pigments,  thus  destroying  the 
wall  paper,  window  hangings,  etc.  ;  the  latter  could  be  removed 
from  rooms  and  disinfected  by  other  means  if  they  be  of 
sufficient  value  to  demand  protection  from  injury.  Chlorin  is 


GERMICIDES — CHEMICAL    AND    THERMAL.  7  I 

twenty  times  more  diffusible  than  bromin,  and  is,  for  this  reason, 
to  be  considered  more  efficient. 

Sulphurous  acid,  or,  more  properly,  sulphur  dioxid,  is  most 
easily  evolved  by  burning  sulphur  in  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
Not  less  than  four  pounds  of  sulphur  should  be  burned  for  each 
thousand  cubic  feet  to  be  disinfected.  As  is  the  case  with  other 
gases,  it  seems  to  act  far  more  efficiently  where  moisture  is 
present,  and  hence  every  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  an 
abundance  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  atmosphere.  Where  sul- 
phurous acid  is  used  on  a  large  scale, 

Fig.  27. 

this  is  secured  by  forcing  in  a  jet  of 
steam,  and  in  houses  where  steam 
radiators  are  to  be  had  these  can  be 
relied  upon  to  supply  moisture, 
otherwise,  it  may  be  accomplished 
as  described  for  chlorin.  Sulphurous 

SlMPLR      CoNTKIVANCR       FOR       (JKNHK- 

acid   is  bleaching  to  a   small  degree,        ATING  SULPHUROUS  ACID  GAS. 

,      ,  ,  11-  i    •         A.     Shallow  iron  pan.     J>.  Bricks  upon 

very  much  less  so  than  chlorin,  and  is      which  the  pan  KM*,   c.  Hot  bricks 

.-[*     •  ,  ,  from    which    steam    is    rising.      The 

Hot     nearly     SO     emCient    as     the     Other         larger  vessel  may  be  either  ;i  washing- 

.....  tub  or  boiler,  or  a  large  bucket. 

gases  already  enumerated  tor  disinfect- 
ing purposes  ;    indeed,  it  is  debatable  whether  the  gas  can  be  re- 
garded as  sufficiently  active  to  demand  the  confidence  which  is 
now  placed  in  it. 

Carbolic  acid  vapor.  The  vapor  of  carbolic  acid  has  been 
supposed  to  possess  some  disinfecting  properties  ;  however,  as 
ordinarily  applied,  by  sprinkling  walls,  floors,  etc.,  its  efficiency 
is  a  matter  of  great  doubt.  The  amount  which  the  air  takes 
up  differs  enormously  at  different  times  and  is  dependent  largely 
upon  conditions  so  poorly  understood  that  but  little  confidence 
can  be  placed  in  it.  It  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  gaseous 
substance  of  which  we  have  spoken  disguises,  but  does  not 
destroy,  whatever  odor  may  be  present  in  the  air,  and  for  this 
reason  alone  is  objectionable. 

Nitrous  acid  or  nitrogen  tetroxid  has  been  proposed — indeed, 
used — by  some  as  a  disinfectant  for  the  air.  For  every  thousand 
feet  of  air  to  be  disinfected,  the  following  should  be  used:  Cop- 
per shavings,  \]/_>  o/.s.  ;  nitric  acid,  4  ozs. ;  water,  4  ^j'  ozs.  The 
efficiency'  of  this  gas  is  still  a  matter  of  some  doubt. 

Thermal  Disinfectants.  All  disease  germs  have  what  is 
known  as  an  optimum  temperature,  a  temperature  at  which  they 


HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 


FIG   28. 


grow  best.  Any  temperature  above  or  below  this  point  tends  to 
diminish  the  activity  of  their  growth,  and,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, to  kill  them. 

Cohi,  with  the  exception  of  one  disease,  seems  to  be  utterly 
inefficient  as  a  disinfectant.  Bacteria  have  been  reduced  to  tem- 
peratures many  degrees  below  zero,  and  when  brought  back  to 
a  suitable  temperature  their  growth  went  on  uninterruptedly.  It 
would,  however,  appear  that  in  yellow  fever  cold  exercises  a 
most  beneficent  influence;  as  is  well  known,  autumnal  frost 
arrests  the  progress  of  the  disease  wherever  it  may  manifest 
itself. 

Heat  is  the  most  efficient  germicide  or  disinfectant  that  we 
possess.  While  a  long  list  of  tempera- 
tures might  be  given  presumably  efficient 
in  certain  instances,  it  is  better,  safer,  and 
wiser  to  resort  only  to  that  temperature 
which,  under  all  circumstances,  can  be 
depended  upon.  (For  thermal  death- 
point,  see  Appendix.) 

Heat  may  be  applied  in  either  of  three 
ways  :  First,  moist  heat ;  second,  dry  heat; 
third,  heat  under  Jiigh  tension  or  pressure, 
either  moist  or  dry. 

Dry  heat  is  rarely  applicable  on  a  large 
scale,  and  in  order  to  be  efficient  de- 
mands a  comparatively  high  tempera- 
ture; thus,  to  destroy  the  bacillus  of 
anthrax  in  the  spore  form  a  temperature 
of  not  less  than  250°  F.  is  demanded.  It 
will  be  readily  seen  that  this  temperature 
almost  invariably  destroys  an}-  material 
which  may  be  subjected  to  it. 

The  high  temperature  demanded  for 
disinfection  by  dry  heat,  its  probable 
destruction  of  the  material  to  be  disin- 
fected, and  its  impracticability,  have  ren- 
dered its  use  almost  obsolete.  When  such  enormous  temperatures 
are  demanded  as  indicated  above,  where  the  loss  will  not  be  too 
great,  the  material  should  be  burned.  In  quarantine  service  it 


FCTIONAI.    V'lKW    OF    A     I>KY    AlK 

STHKIU/.KK,  showii  g  jacket  fur 
hot  air,  which  is  heated  before 
the  interior.  No  matter  upon 
what  scale  a  hot-air  sterilizer 
may  be  constructed,  the  super- 
heated jacket  is  a  necessity. 


THERMAL    DISINFECTANTS. 


73 


is  very  constantly  found  that  those  things  most  likely  to  be  in- 
fected are  sufficiently  cheap  and  inexpensive  to  render  their  loss 
a  matter  worthy  of  no  consideration.  Where  dry  heat  is  to 
be  used,  some  of  the  forms  of  sterilizers  by  hot  air  must  be  re- 
sorted  to  ;  of  these  there  area  large  number  on  the  market.  The 
accompanying  diagram  illustrates  the  essential  elements  necessary 
in  a  hot-air  sterilizer. 

Moist  Heat.     Moist  heat  may  be  applied  either  as  steam  or 
boiling  water;  the  steam  is  preferable,  as  it  secures  better  pene- 


FK;.  29. 


FIG.  30. 


STERILIZING  CHAMBER 

U  A       r 


FIRST  FORM  OF  ARNOLD'S  STEAM  STERILIZER. 
Tall,  narrow,  disinfecting  chamber. 


SECOND  FORM  OF  ARNOLD'S  STEAM  STERILI/.EK. 

Low  disinfecting  chamber,  with  greatly 

increased  diameter. 


tration  and  is  not  so  likely  to  injure  the  goods  as  boiling.  Many 
forms  of  steam  sterilizers  have  been  proposed  from  time  to  time 
for  various  purposes.  It  is  essential,  in  disinfecting  by  steam, 
that  we  have  three  things:  First,  the  oven,  which  must  be 
incased  in  some  non-conducting  material  to  prevent  the  rapid 
radiation  of  heat  and  cooling  of  the  surface,  which  causes  con- 
densation of  the  steam  in  the  interior;  second,  an  abundant 
supply  of  steam,  which  should,  if  possible,  be  delivered  super- 
5 


74 


HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 


heated ;  third,  an  outlet  by  which  the  steam  can  be  allowed  to 
escape  and  fresh  steam  admitted  from  time  to  time.  It  is 
desirous  that  the  supply  should  be  constant,  and  this  demands 
that  the  exit  shall  be  equally  continuous. 

Heat  under  high  tension  or  pressure.  In  laboratory  investi- 
gations it  has  been  found  that  either  hot  air  or  steam  under  a 
pressure  of  two  or  three  atmospheres  has  more  than  treble  the 
disinfecting  power  of  the  same  degree  of  heat  as  ordinarily  ap- 
plied. The  essential  features  in  order  to  disinfect  by  heat  are 


FIG.  31. 


THIRD  FOKM  or  ARNOLD'S  STKAM  STFRIIIZKR.     (Form  used    by    Boston    Health   Board. I     Con- 
structed on  same  general  plan  as  tliose  shown  in  Figs.  29  and  30. 

penetration  as  well  as  elevation  of  temperature  ;  this  the  increased 
pressure  greatly  facilitates  and  aids  materially  in  securing  a  nec- 
essary degree  of  heat  in  the  interior  of  materials  subjected  to  its 
action.  The  apparatus  ordinarily  employed  in  the  laboratories 
and  in  Kurope  for  disinfecting  purposes  underpressure  is  known 
as  a  "  digester." 

Not  only  may  heat  be  used  in  the  forms  already  referred  to, 
but  the  steam  or  hot  air  may  be  made  a  carrier  of  other  disin- 
fecting agents:  thus,  in  the  application  of  steam,  the  water  from 


THERMAL    DISINFECTANTS. 


75 


which  the  steam  is  to  be  generated  may  be  highly  charged  with 
carbolic  acid,  or  carbolic  acid  may  be  allowed  to  mix  with  the 
steam  in  the  sterilizer.  In  the  former  case  if  the  steam  be  heavily 
charged  with  carbolic  acid  and  the  charge  continued  until  the 
sterili/.ation  is  half  completed,  and  if  the  succeeding  steam  ad- 
mitted be  free  from  the  acid,  nearly  all  the  odor  in  the  disinfecting 
chamber  will  be  driven  out  by  the  uncharged  steam. 

In  selecting  or  having  constructed  an  apparatus  for  sterilizing 
by  heat,  the  most  important  factor  is  to  see  that  all  parts  of  the 
disinfecting  chamber  can  be  raised  to  the  same  temperature. 
This,  of  course,  is  to  be  largely  facilitated,  where  the  disinfect- 
ing chamber  is  one  of  great  size,  by  a  thorough  insulation  of  its 
surface  and  by  the  delivery  of  the  heat  at  two  or  more  orifices, 
and  exits  being  allowed  through  several  openings  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  opened  successively,  thus  preventing  the  forma- 
tion of  a  current  in  any  one  direction  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
parts  of  the  chamber,  at  the  same  time  directing  the  heat  flow 
in  different  channels. 

Where  dry  heat  is  applied  at  a  temperature  of  not  less  than 
220°  F.,  it  should  be  used  continuously  for  one 
hour;  if  a  higher  temperature  is  used  a  shorter 
time  will  suffice.  Moist  heat  should  be  applied 
for  not  less  than  an  hour  at  a  temperature  of 
212°  F.,  and  preferably  for  a  longer  time.  Inthe 
"  digester,"  when  the  temperature  reaches  2I5°F. 
and  the  pressure  is  two  atmospheres,  a  shorter 
time  will  be  sufficient.  With  regard  to  the  ele- 
ment of  time,  it  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  date  the  length  of  exposure  from  the  time 
when  the  temperature  reaches  the  desired  degree  ; 
this  is  best  determined  in  large  disinfecting  ovens 
by  means  of  electric  contact  thermometers  placed 
at  different  localities  throughout  the  mass  to  be 
disinfected.  These  can  be  set  to  indicate  when 
any  given  degree  is  reached, and  the  time  at  which 
the  sterilization  should  be  presumed  to  begin  is 
when  all  these  thermometers  indicate  the  same 
degree,  say  212°  F.  or  215°  F.,  or  whatever  temperature  it  may 
be  desirable  to  use.  The  foregoing  specifications  as  to  time  are 


FIG. 


CONTACT  THKKMOMI--- 


TEK,  i 

of  con 
strum 
are  in 
ordin; 
ter.  1 
mome 
be  •'  se 
platinu 


means  of  a 
or  clamp. 


ith  fixed  point 
act  ;  in  this  in- 
n t the  decrees 
iked  as  in  the 
ry    thermni::e- 
contact  ilier- 
rs  which  can 
:,"  the  upper 
11  wire  can  be 
ered   bv 


HEALTH  — CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

presumed  to  be  applied  under  the  rule  just  given.  These  electric 
contact  thermometers  are  now  on  the  market,  or  may  be  construc- 
ted by  any  glass-blower  from  the  accompanying  diagram.  (See 
Thermostat,  in  article  on  heating.) 

Heat  may  be  applied  interruptedly,  and  this  undoubtedly 
affords  a  most  admirable  method  for  disinfection.  Where  pro- 
longed or  continuous  heat  will  destroy  the  material,  it  may  be 
heated  for  twenty  minutes  to  a  half  hour  each  day  for  four  suc- 
cessive days,  by  means  of  which  disinfection  will  be  accom- 
plished. 

Deodorants.  Some  of  the  disinfectants  which  have  been 
mentioned  are  actively  deodorant,  for  example,  chlorin,  bromin, 
sulphurous  acid,  and  possibly  carbolic  acid. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
deodorizing  and  disinfecting,  and  that  for  all  practical  purposes 
the  two  should  be  considered  separately.  If,  for  example,  it  be 
desirable  to  disinfect  a  room,  the  most  thorough  applicable  disin- 
fectants should  be  used  and  allowed  to  act  until  all  reasonable 
doubt  has  been  removed  ;  they  are  then  to  be  followed  by  de- 
odorants if  they  themselves  have  not  so  acted. 

Chlorin  or  bromin  will  be  found  a  most  efficient  deodorant. 
The  chlorin  may  be  used  in  the  shape  of  chlorinated  lime 
sprinkled  about  where  the  odor  arises,  preferably  at  its  source. 
Permanganate  of  potassium  is  a  most  efficient  deodorant, 
although  its  efficiency  as  a  disinfecting  agent  is  doubtful.  In 
order  to  apply  permanganate  of  potassium  as  a  deodorant,  it 
ma}'  be  used  where  fluid  is  present,  as  in  cesspools  and  water- 
closets,  by  sprinkling  the  powder  over  the  moistened  material 
from  which  the  odor  is  emanating,  or  if  a  sufficient  degree  of 
moisture  is  not  present,  a  solution  of  the  salt  may  be  applied, 
the  strength  varying  but  little  from  that  of  a  saturated  solution. 

Special  Disinfection. 

7//<'  Disinfection  of  a  Patient  after  Recoi'erv  from  <>>•  Exposure 
to  a  Contagions  Disease.  The  bod}'  should  be  washed  from  head 
t<>  foot  thoroughly,  with  a  good  alkaline  soap,  in  order  to  remove 
an\'  grease  which  may  be  present,  and  then,  after  ringing  the 
soap  off.  the  body  should  be  bathed  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, made  by  taking  three  hundred  parts  of  hydrogen  peroxid 
(  15  vol.  solution),  seven  hundred  parts  of  water,  and  one  part  of 


SPECIAL    DISINFECTION.  77 

corrosive  sublimate.  The  removal  of  the  grease  maybe  secured 
by  using  alcohol  (bathing  alcohol),  or  whisky,  or  soap  liniment 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  soap,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, is  the  best  agent  which  we  possess,  as  people  will  use  it 
more  freely  and  more  thoroughly  than  any  of  the  ordinary 
preparations.  The  greatest  care  should  be  given  to  the  hair}' 
parts  of  the  body,  including  the  head,  axilla,  and  genital  region. 
Carbolic  acid  solutions  are  not  to  be  trusted.  After  the  appli- 
cation of  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution  of  the  strength  of  one 
to  one  thousand,  a  one  to  four  or  five  thousand  solution  should 
be  applied,  and  this  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  skin.  The  patient 
is  now  to  be  dressed  in  an  entire  change  of  clothes.  The 
process  may  be  repeated  on  the  following  day,  after  which  it  is 
to  be  presumed  that  the  danger  of  spreading  the  disease  is  over. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  where  a  health}-  individual  has  been 
isolated,  he  should  be  treated  after  the  termination  of  the  period 
of  isolation  exactly  as  though  he  had  just  passed  through  the 
disease.  If  he  has  been  exposed  to  the  contagion  he  may  have 
escaped  by  reason  of  individual  immunity,  but  if  allowed  to 
go  free  he  may  carry  the  disease  with  him  just  as  much  as  if  he 
had  gone  directly  from  the  source  of  the  contagion  to  the  pub- 
lic at  large. 

For  disinfecting  the  hands  the  following  methods  are  to  be 
recommended  : — 

The  nails  should  be  short  and  clean. 

The  hands  are  thoroughly  washed  for  several  minutes  with 
soap  and  water,  the  water  being  as  warm  as  can  be  comfortably 
borne,  and  being  changed  frequently.  Use  a  brush  which  has 
been  sterilized  by  steam.  The  excess  of  soap  is  washed  off 
with  clean,  warm  water.  The  hands  are  immersed  for  one  or  two 
minutes  in  a  warm  saturated  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash, 
and  are  rubbed  over  thoroughly  with  a  sterilized  swab.  Then 
place  the  hands  in  a  warm  saturated  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
until  they  are  completely  decolorized.  Wash  the  hands  with  a 
sterilized  normal  salt  solution  (.5  per  cent.).  Immerse  the  hands 
for  two  minutes  in  a  one  to  five-hundred  solution  of  the  bi- 
chlorid  of  mercury  and  wash  in  boiled  distilled  water. 

Prof.  Keen,  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  Hospital,  uses 
the  folio  wine  method  : — 


78  HEALTH — CAUSE    AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

The  hands  are  washed  with  soap  and  warm  water,  the  nails, 
being  cleaned  and  trimmed  with  a  knife,  are  then  scoured  with  a 
sterilized  brush.  All  loose  skin  about  the  nails  is  removed. 
The  hands  are  again  washed  in  warm  water,  but  without  soap. 
Immerse  the  hands  in  alcohol  for  two  minutes  and  briskly 
rub  one  over  the  other.  They  are  then  immersed  in  a  one 
to  one  thousand  solution  of  the  bichlorid  of  mercury.  This 
method  is  a  most  excellent  one.  The  writers  have  tested  the 
skin  and  nails  after  being  sterilized  as  above  directed,  and  also 
cat-gut  and  silk,  which  were  handled  by  the  operator  or  his 
assistants,  with  almost  invariably  negative  results.  In  obstetrical 
and  gynecological  work  creolin  and  lysol  have  been  largely 
used.  Their  efficiency  is  questionable,  although  some  experi- 
menters have  been  led  to  believe  t-hat  in  solutions  varying  from 
one  to  five  per  cent,  they  are  disinfectants  ;  they  probably  are 
merely  antiseptics  of  not  a  very  high  order. 

For  the  disinfection  of  surgical  instruments  heat  is  by  far  the 
most  desirable.  As  a  rule  it  is  applied  moist,  either  by  boiling 
the  instruments  or  by  steaming  them  in  suitable  receptacles. 
The  Arnold  and  Schimmelbausch  sterilizers  are  most  extensively 
used  for  moist  heat ;  the  former  uses  steam,  the  latter  contains 
a  reservoir  in  which  the  instruments  are  placed  and  boiled. 
Rusting  is  prevented  by  using  a  one  per  cent,  aqueous  solution 
of  carbonate  of  sodium.  Non-metallic  instruments  may  be  dis- 
infected in  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  and  carbolic  acid  so- 
lution may  be  used  upon  metallic  instruments.  Where  heat  is 
not  available,  disinfection  may  be  accomplished  by  immersing 
the  instrument  for  half  an  hour  in  a  ten  per  cent,  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  made  with  glycerin,  as  already  directed.  At  the 
end  of  the  half  hour,  the  carbolic  acid  is  poured  off  and  boiling 
water  poured  over  the  instruments,  which,  upon  cooling,  may  be 
poured  off,  or  the  instruments  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  it 
and  used  from  the  tray  containing  the  boiling  water. 

Disinfection  of  Clothing.  Where  the  clothing  is  not  too  expen- 
sive it  .should  be  burned,  as  it  is  questionable  whether  we  can 
insure  disinfection  under  ordinary  circumstances.  Where  heat 
(.in  be  applied  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  and  to  a  high 
degree,  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  of  the  disinfection  of  the 
material  exposed.  In  clothing,  however,  this  is  not  readily 


SPECIAL    DISINFECTION.  79 

attainable.  Bed  clothing,  window  hangings,  carpets,  etc.,  should 
be  treated  exactly  as  clothing,  and  where  they  can  be  subjected 
to  heat,  in  any  of  its  forms,  that  method  of  disinfection  should  be 
resorted  to.  Where  heat  cannot  be  applied,  materials  should  be 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  not  weaker  than 
one  part  of  the  drug  to  eight  hundred  parts  of  water.  Carbolic 
acid  for  the  disinfection  of  clothing  is  not  to  be  recommended  if 
corrosive  sublimate  can  be  used.  Where  the  carbolic  acid  is 
applied,  it  should  be  in  a  ten  percent,  solution,  and  the  exposure 
should  be  for  several  hours.  If  the  corrosive  sublimate  acts  for 
one  hour,  the  disinfection  may  be  assumed  to  be  complete,  and 
the  material  may  be  washed  in  water.  Materials  which  have 
received  the  discharges  of  the  sick  or  have  become  soiled  should 
be  destroyed  by  burning  or  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  not 
less  than  212°  F.  for  one  hour,  if  moist  heat,  or  230°  to  240°  F. 
for  not  less  than  one  and  one-half,  preferably  two  hours,  if  dry 
heat  be  used. 

Walls,  floors,  bedsteads,  and  furniture,  other  than  upholstered 
furniture,  which  can  never  be  disinfected  without  injury,  should 
be  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  then  with  a  solution  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  one  to  eight  hundred,  followed  by  rinsing  the 
corrosive  sublimate  off  with  water.  Carbolic  acid  solutions  are 
not  to  be  strongly  recommended,  although  if  a  ten  per  cent,  solu- 
tion be  used  it  may  be  considered  as  fairly  reliable.  Disinfection 
of  rooms  by  fumigation  with  sulphur  dioxid  for  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours  may  be  resorted  to.  The  room  should  be  rendered 
as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible  by  pasting  paper  on  the  outside 
of  all  cracks,  key-holes,  etc.,  and  by  packing  it  under  the  doors 
and  window  crevices  before  the  sulphur  is  burned. 

Hospitals,  sliips,  railway  cars,  ambulances,  and  carriages  used 
for  the  transportation  of  the  sick,  can  all  be  disinfected  by  some 
of  the  methods  given  above.  Spraying  the  atmosphere  in  rooms, 
hospitals,  etc.,  is  an  utterly  valueless  and  misleading  procedure. 

For  the  disinfection  of  the  mails,  sulphur  dioxid  or,  possibly, 
chlorin  or  bromin  may  be  used;  bleaching  and  other  injurious 
effects  will  probably  follow  the  use  of  the  latter  two.  Dry  heat 
may  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  disinfection  of  excreta  may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
strong  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  not  weaker  than  one  to 


8O  HEALTH — CAUSE   AND    PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE. 

one  thousand,  pure  carbolic  acid  and  glycerin,  equal  parts,  by 
incineration  in  a  suitable  furnace,  by  chlorin  or  chlorin  water, 
and,  where  nothing  else  is  to  be  had,  chlorinated  lime  may  be 
used.  If  a  disinfecting  solution  be  used,  the  quantity  should 
always  exceed  the  amount  of  excreta  to  be  disinfected,  and 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  dilution. 

The  disinfection  of  the  sick  during  the  progress  of  the  disease 
is  not  at  all  feasible,  and  concentration  of  the  poison  in  the 
room  is  to  be  avoided  by  free  ventilation.  If  the  air  leaving  the 
room  is  conducted  into  a  heater  flue,  as  is  arranged  in  some  hos- 
pitals, or  filtered  through  cotton  at  the  point  of  exit,  no  fear  need 
be  anticipated  from  this  source  for  those  occupying  adjoining 
space. 

Occasionally  it  may  be  desirable  to  disinfect  water,  milk, 
and  other  foods  prior  to  their  ingestion,  in  which  cases  the  read- 
ers are  referred  to  the  chapter  upon  these  subjects,  at  the  same 
time  remembering  that  heat  is  the  only  available  and  reliable 
disinfectant  which  we  possess  that  is  applicable  •  under  these 
circumstances. 

The  Handling  of  the  Dead  from  Contagions  Diseases.  As  a 
rule  the  body  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  room  until  all 
the  preparations  have  been  made  for  the  funeral.  It  should  be 
"  laid  out  "  on  a  marble-top  stand  or  table,  if  one  be  in  the 
room,  if  not,  upon  a  board,  which  is  either  used  exclusively  for 
that  purpose,  or,  preferably,  which  can  afterwards  be  destroyed. 
The  body  should  be  wrapped  in  cotton  or  linen,  or  a  sheet,  if 
neither  of  the  others  can  be  obtained,  saturated  with  a  strong 
solution  of  bichlorid  of  mercury,  not  weaker  than  one  to  five 
hundred,  and  it  is  preferable  that  it  contain  ten  per  cent,  of 
glycerin,  as  this  will  prevent  the  wrapping  material  from  be- 
coming dry  and  the  antiseptic  losing  its  efficiency.  If  for  any 
reason  corrosive  sublimate  is  not  to  be  had,  carbolic  acid  may 
be  used,  although  the  writers  place  very  little  confidence  in  the 
germicidal  action  of  the  solutions  of  carbolic  acid  which  are 
usually  employed.  A  strength  of  not  less  than  ten  per  cent,  is 
of  very  doubtful  efficiency,  and  a  stronger  solution,  indeed,  a 
solution  of  that  strength,  will  be  destructive  to  the  hands  of 
those  applying  it.  If  absorbent  cotton  be  used  for  the  wrapping  of 
the  body  it  may  be  applied  and  then  saturated  with  the  antisep- 


SPECIAL    DISINFECTION.  8  I 

tic.  No  part  of  the  body  should  be  left  exposed,  and  the  habit 
of  leaving  the  face  uncovered  is  to  be  highly  condemned. 
Under  all  circumstances  the  body  should  be  placed  in  an  air- 
tight casket  and  sealed  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  Just 
before  sealing  the  casket  it  has  been  found  advantageous  to  start 
the  generation  of  chlorin  gas  by  putting  in  the  casket  a  small 
box  which  contains  chlorinated  lime  upon  which  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  have  been  poured. 
Where  a  contagious  disease  is  raging  in  an  epidemic  form, 
caskets  for  burial  should  be  in  constant  readiness,  and  the  lay- 
ing out  of  those  dead  from  the  disease  should  be  prohibited.  As 
after  burial  it  has  been  shown  that  disease  may  be  propagated 
possibly  from  infected  graveyards,  the  filling  of  the  casket, 
partly  at  least,  with  quicklime,  is,  wherever  applicable,  always 
to  be  strongly  urged.  Cremation,  of  course,  affords  the  most 
efficient  method  of  disposing  of  those  dead  of  any  contagious 
disease,  as  it  thereby  entirely  removes  the  danger  arising  from 
graveyards,  vaults,  etc.  Unfortunately,  the  laity,  indeed, 
we  might  say  the  medical  profession,  has  not  reached  that  point 
of  scientific  education  where  they  are  ready  to  accept  incineration. 
Under  all  circumstances  the  body  should  be  disposed  of,  either  by 
burial  or  preferably  cremation,  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 
Public  funerals  are  to  be  discouraged,  private  interment  is  to 
be  ordered,  and  in  epidemics  the  undertakers  who  are  employed 
in  the  burial  of  contagious  cases  should  be  prohibited  from 
entering  uninfected  houses,  or  from  employing  any  of  the 
materials  or  appliances  which  have  been  used  in  the  infected 
house  for  or  during  the  interment  of  those  dying  from  some 
benign  disease.  It  seems  highly  advisable  to  the  writers  that, 
during  the  raging  of  an  epidemic,  all  funerals  of  whatever  class 
or  kind,  should  be  without  public  demonstration,  as  this  lessens 
the  likelihood  of  undiagnosticatecl  cases  giving  rise  to  infection, 
and  diminishes  the  tendency  to  aggregation  of  individuals,  which 
must,  inevitably,  sooner  or  later,  afford  ample  opportunity  for 
wide-spread  infection. 


CHAPTER  IT. 
INDIVIDUAL  OR  PERSONAL  HYGIENE. 

Individual  or  personal  hygiene  may  be  divided,  according  to 
age,  fnto  arbitrary  periods,  or  subdivisions,  based  on  certain  ill- 
defined  changes  presumed  to  occur  at  or  during  given  years. 
First,  the  infant,  from  birth  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  year;  sec- 
ond, the  c/ii/d,  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  to  the  twelfth  year; 
third,  the  young  adult,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth  year; 
fourth,  the  adult,  from  the  eighteenth  year  to  the  termination  of 
life.  If  the  individual  lives  long  enough,  there  develops  that 
age  at  which  the  general  faculties  begin  to  wear  out,  the  muscu- 
lar and  fibrous  tissues  of  the  body  to  waste,  and  general  physical 
decay  manifest  itself.  This  condition  is  known  as  old  age. 

The  Infant.  At  birth,  careful  examination  should  be  made 
to  be  sure  that  no  malformations  or  maldevelopments  are 
present.  The  treatment  of  the  umbilical  cord  is  a  matter  for  the 
obstetrician. 

deeding.  The  first  and  most  important  thing  to  be  considered 
with  regard  to  the  infant  is  its  diet.  No  food,  either  derived  from 
the  lower  animals  or  the  product  of  synthesis,  can  approach 
mother's  milk.  The  child  should  be  put  to  the  breast  as  soon  after 
birth  as  the  mother's  condition  will  permit,  and  should  be  nursed  at 
regular  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours  for  the  first  three  or  four 
months,  after  which  the  interval  between  the  feedings  may  be 
lengthened.  In  case  the  mother's  milk  threatens  to  fail,  her  diet 
must  be  such  as  to  favor  the  production  of  milk,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  her  labor  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  to  prevent  the 
excessive  burning  of  food  for  the  production  of  heat  and  force. 
She  should  take  a  limited  amount  of  exercise  ;  plenty  of  rest.  Her 
food  should  be  administered  often, and  should  be, as  already  stated, 
of  a  highly  nutritious  nature.  Here  porter,  beer,  and  other  malt 
preparations  seem  to  be  admirably  adapted.  In  case  the  mother 
cannot  supply  food  for  the  child,  the  question  naturally  arises  : 

82 


INFANT DIET CLOTHING.  83 

What  shall  we  give  it?  Dr.  Coplin,  having  been  for  several 
years  associated  with  an  institution  for  the  care  of  children,  the 
Philadelphia  Sanitarium,  can  speak  with  some  confidence  upon 
the  matter  of  infant  feeding.  Having  experimented  with  nearly 
all  forms  of  artificial  food,  he  is  ready  to  announce  a  decided 
preference  for  sterilized  milk  in  some  of  its  forms.  Pasteurized 
milk,  that  is  milk  sterilized  by  intermittent  heating,  at  compara- 
tively low  temperatures,  140°  F.  to  160°  F.,  is  now  largely  used. 
The  milk  should  have  added  to  it  a  small  percentage  of  cream  and 
some  lime-water,  with  milk  sugar,  following  the  formula  advised 
by  Dr.  E.  P.  Davis  ;  the  most  important  feature,  the  essential  ele- 
ment, is  the  sterilization.  We  are  persuaded  that  one  reason 
why  sterilized  milk  does  not  always  agree  with  infants  is  that 
bacterial  products  develop  within  the  milk  prior  to  its  steriliza- 
tion. At  the  Sanitarium,  the  milk  was  brought  immediately  from 
the  dairy,  and  twenty  minutes  after  it  left  the  cow  was  in  the 
sterilizer.  Apparatus  for  the  sterilization  of  milk  has  become  so 
cheap  and  so  readily  obtainable  that  there  is  no  excuse  for  the 
administration  of  any  other  form  of  diet  until  after  sterilized  milk 
has  been  tried.  There  may  be  circumstances  under  which  the 
administriition  of  sterilized  milk  would  be  accomplished  only 
through  great  difficulty  ;  in  such  instances  it  will  be  found  ad- 
visable to  try  some  of  the  artificial  foods  that  are  upon  the 
market.  It  is  well  for  the  physician  to  remember  that  ninety- 
nine  times  in  the  hundred  it  is  a  practical  impossibility  to  pre- 
scribe an  irrevocable  diet  for  man  in  health,  and  for  a  medical  man 
to  claim  that  one  diet  under  all  circumstances  is  to  be  resorted 
to,  to  any  thinking  man  must  show  evidence  of  superficiality. 
The  various  foods  should  be  tried,  one  after  the  other,  patiently, 
conscientiously,  carefully,  until  that  one  is  found  which  best 
agrees  with  the  individual  case. 

For  the  administration  of  artificial  foods,  a  plain  nursing  bottle 
with  nipple  should  be  used.  No  name,  graduation,  or  other  de- 
vice is  to  be  blown  in  the  bottle,  as  these  but  afford  crevices  for 
the  lodgment  of  dirt  or  milk  to  decompose.  The  bottle  should  be 
cylindrical  with  a  round  bottom  to  facilitate  cleaning,  and  all  com- 
plicated nursing  tubes,  nipples,  etc.,  are  to  be  strictly  prohibited. 

Clot/iing.  The  essential  elements  in  clothing  the  baby  are 
lightness  of  weight,  warmth,  and  being  so  made  that  no  tight 


84  INDIVIDUAL   OK    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

bands  or  constricting  gathers  shall  be  found  around  the  arms, 
neck,  or  waist.  Woolen  underclothing  affords  undoubtedly  the 
best  protection  for  infants.  The  soft  and  delicate  flannels  that 
are  so  cheap  no\v-a-days  can  be  used  for  the  clothing  next  to  the 
skin,  and,  if  necessary,  a  heavier  substitute  can  be  put  over  the 
light  flannel.  At  night  the  infant  should  sleep  in  a  flannel  night 
robe  made  sufficiently  long  to  be  tied  below  the  feet,  putting 
the  child  in  a  bag,  as  it  were.  The  skirts  to  babies'  dresses 
should  always  be  sufficiently  long  to  cover  the  feet  well,  but 
never  long  enough  to  make  it  a  drag  on  the  waist  or  shoulders. 
The  popular  idea  of  having  the  child's  skirts  a  yard  or  a  yard  and 
a  half  long  during  the  first  few  months  after  birth  is  disgusting 
in  the  extreme,  and  should  be  discouraged  in  every  possible 
way.  Equally  reprehensible  is  the  other  extreme,  short  skirts, 
and  the  fashionable  delusion  of  short  stockings,  or  socks,  as  they 
are  called,  and  little  fancy  slippers  ;  bare  legs  exposed  alike  to 
cold  and  moisture  favor  the  development  of  croup,  diphtheria, 
and  intestinal  complaints  which  carry  off  such  multitudes  of 
children  every  summer.  At  one  time  the  writers  were  inclined 
to  think  summer  a  dangerous  season  for  children  ;  they  are  now 
of  the  opinion  that  it  should  be  the  harvest  of  their  growth  ; 
that  their  development  should  be  more  rapid,  their  strength 
should  increase  with  greatest  strides  during  the  summer  months, 
and  that  which  has  given  the  summer  a  bad  name  is  the  repre- 
hensible carelessness  and  ignorance  of  those  who  have  the  chil- 
dren, more  particularly  infants,  to  care  for. 

Weaning.  The  question  which  will  often  be  asked  is,  when 
shall  I  wean  the  child  ?  This  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  baby  or  mother.  Where  the  mother  be  vigorous, 
with  abundance  of  milk,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  child  should 
be  weaned  until  after  it  has  passed  the  second  summer;  if,  how- 
ever, the  evidences  are  that  the  milk  is  not  giving  sufficient  nour- 
ishment, and  that  the  child  has  stopped  growing  or  shows- 
evidence  of  faulty  nutrition,  a  change  of  diet  is  demanded,  and 
other  foods  than  that  of  the  mother  must  be  tried.  Here  again 
some  of  the  artificial  foods  may  be  used  or  the  child  may  be  put 
immediately  upon  a  mixed  diet  composed  largely  of  soups, 
broths,  milk  in  some  of  its  forms,  occasionally  some  potatoes,  but 
IT)  fruit.  Weaning  during  pregnancy  is  to  be  encouraged, 


INFANT — AIR BATHING — SLEEP — DENTITION.  85 

although  the  reason  for  believing  that  the  milk  of  the  pregnant 
woman  injures  the  child  is  not  entirely  apparent.  A  proper 
time  should  be  selected  for  weaning,  and  the  child  should  be 
slowly  if  possible,  abruptly  if  necessary,  transferred  from  the 
diet  of  mother's  milk  to  artificial  food. 

Air.  The  baby  should  have  all  the  out-door  life  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  give  it,  and  during  pleasant  days,  summer  afternoons  and 
mornings,  it  should  be  given  an  outing  in  the  country  or  on 
board  an  excursion  boat ;  on  account  of  the  ease  by  which 
country  air  maybe  applied,  the  child  should  advisably  be  taken 
to  the  country. 

Battling.  During  the  first  two  years  of  life  the  infant  should 
have  at  least  two  baths  a  day.  These  should  be  in  tepid  water 
in  a  warm  room  and  given  every  morning  on  rising  and  every 
night  on  going  to  bed  :  if,  during  the  day,  the  clothes  become 
soiled  as  well  as  the  skin  itself,  topical  baths  may  be  resorted  to. 
The  clothes  should  be  changed  after  each  bath  ;  even  if  not 
soiled  they  demand  an  airing. 

Sleep.  The  baby  should  sleep  all  that  it  wants  to,  but 
should  be  given  no  narcotics  or  soothing  syrups  to  secure 
its  rest  at  night.  After  the  evening  bath  it  should  be  placed  in 
its  night-gown,  to  which  we  have  already  referred.  The  habit  of 
allowing  the  child  to  sleep  in  the  clothes  that  have  been  worn 
during  the  day, a  habit  not  uncommon  among  all  classes,  is  to  be 
condemned.  Infants  and  children  should,  under  no  circum- 
stances, be  permitted  to  sleep  with  adults  ;  small  cribs  or  cots,  now 
so  cheap,  can  always  be  obtained.  Equally  condemnable  is  the 
pernicious  habit  of  several  children  sleeping  in  the  same  bed. 

Dentition.  The  period  of  dentition  in  children  is  supposed  to 
be  a  fruitful  source  of  disease.  The  writers  are  not  inclined  to 
place  very  much  confidence  in  the  popular  idea  that  every  child 
must  be  sick  when  it  cuts  its  teeth.  Under  proper  environment, 
with  sensible  food,  clothing,  etc.,  nine  children  out  of  ten,  if  other- 
wise in  good  health,  will  cut  their  teeth  without  any  gastrointes- 
tinal disorder.  Although  hardly  a  part  of  hygiene,  it  is  perhaps 
wise  to  refer  to  the  time  at  which  the  teeth  may  be  expected.  Be- 
tween the  sixth  and  eighth  months  after  birth  the  two  lower 
central  incisors  will  most  likely  cut  through  simultaneously;  by 
the  tenth  month  the  two  upper  central  incisors,  followed  shortly 


86  INDIVIDUAL    OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

by  the  lateral  incisors  on  either  side  ;  between  the  twelfth  and 
fourteenth  months  the  two  upper  anterior  molars  may  be  ex- 
pected as  well  as  the  two  inferior  lateral  incisors  and  the  two 
lower  anterior  molars,  usually  in  the  order  mentioned.  From 
the  sixteenth  to  the  twentieth  month  the  canines  appear.  From 
the  twentieth  month  to  the  end  of  the  third  year  the  four 
posterior  molars  may  be  expected.  Usually  by  the  end  of  the 
third  year  the  eruption  of  the  milk  teeth  is  completed  and  no 
more  may  be  expected  to  appear  until  the  fifth  or  sixth  year, 
when  the  temporary  teeth  usually  begin  to  show  evidences  of 
being  superseded  by  the  permanent  teeth.  The  temporary  teeth 
usually  fall  out  exactly  in  the  order  of  their  eruption,  and  the 
appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  is  approximately  as  follows: 
— Sixth  year,  first  molars  ;  seventh  year,  central  incisors  ;  eighth 
year,  lateral  incisors  ;  tenth  year,  first  bicuspids  ;  eleventh  year, 
second  bicuspids  ;  twelfth  to  thirteenth  year, the  canine,  closely 
followed  by  the  two  molars;  while  from  the  seventh  to  the 
twenty-first  year,  rarely  later,  occasionally  earlier,  the  "  wisdom  " 
teeth  will  appear. 

The  Child. 

Contagious  Diseases.  The  question  will  often  arise  during  the 
tender  years  of  life  whether  it  be  advisable  to  allow  the  child  to 
have  the  usual  contagious  diseases  of  childhood,  such  as  chicken- 
pox,  measles,  mumps,  etc.  While  it  is  never  wise  to  rush  into 
danger,  in  the  case  of  a  good,  strong,  healthy  child  there  is  no 
reason  why  an  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  its  acquiring  any 
of  the  mild  contagious  diseases  of  childhood.  Every  care,  how- 
ever, should  be  exerted  under  all  circumstances  to  keep  the  child 
away  from  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and,  of  course,  smallpox.  Xo 
pardonable  reason  can  be  adduced  for  allowing  a  child  to  contract 
either  of  these  dangerous  diseases  where  it  can  be  prevented. 

Iivcrcisc.  As  soon  as  a  child  has  reached  the  age  of,  say  four,  five, 
or  six  years,  abundant  exercise  is  demanded  ;  when  the  exuberant 
animal  spirit  demands  the  opportunity  for  manifesting  itself,  out- 
door exercise  is  always  to  be  encouraged  and  every  effort  made 
to  make  it  sufficiently  diversified  in  order  to  effect  the  develop- 
ment of  the  general  muscles  of  the  body,  arms,  and  legs.  Mr. 
I  reves  very  aptly  puts  this  as  "scientific  romping,"  a  most  happy 
term.  I  he  gymnasium  or  school  where  exercise  is  obtained  by 
routine  rarely  does  any  good  ;  it  is  in  the  home,  with  the  society 


THE    CHILD — CLOTHING.  87 

of  selected  children  who  are  mutually  agreeable  to  each  other, 
that  mental  and  muscular  exercises  may  be  most  easily  attained, 
and  which  at  the  same  time  will  effect  signal  benefit  to  the  grow- 
ing child. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  in  the  use  of  their  lungs  as 
well  as  their  hands  and  arms  ;  do  not  tie  them  up  in  the  house 
and  suppress  every  outburst  of  enthusiasm;  let  them  "yell;" 
give  them  the  opportunity  to  develop  the  muscular  apparatus  of 
the  chest,  and  let  them  acquire  all  possible  intonations  of  the 
voice,  from  the  Indian  war-whoop  to  the  confidential  whisper  of 
childhood. 

Clothing.  The  general  principles  with  regard  to  the  clothing 
during  childhood  are  the  same  as  those  suggested  for  infancy. 
Two  important  indications  to  be  attained  in  children's  clothing  are 
warmth  and  a  sufficiently  porous  texture  in  the  goods  to  permit 
of  vapor  and  perspiration  from  the  skin  readily  diffusing  itself 
as  rapidly  as  formed.  "  Over  clothing  "  is  to  be  considered  as 
absolutely  dangerous,  while  less  clothing  than  an  absolute  suffi- 
ciency is  the  safer  side  upon  which  to  err,  if  error  there  must  be. 
Smooth  flannels  should  be  worn  next  to  the  skin.  Tight  bands 
at  the  waist,  wrist,  elbows,  and  knees  are  to  be  prohibited. 
Here,  in  the  name  of  humanity,  and  the  growing  and  develop- 
ing woman  that  is  to  be,  let  the  Christian  mother,  who  holds 
up  her  hands  in  horror  at  the  ringed  nose  and  pierced  ears  of 
the  savage,  throw  aside  the  all-deforming  corset,  the  circular 
garter,  and  pinched,  narrow  shoe  with  its  abominable  high  heel. 
It  is  worse  than  useless  to  advise  out-door  exercise  for  the 
improvement  of  the  muscles  of  the  leg,  and  the  carriage, 
both  of  which  are  interfered  with  by  high  heels  ;  and  equally 
unavailing  to  advise  fresh  air  when  jackets  and  waist-bands 
restrict  the  breathing  to  the  thoracic  region.  These  are  impor- 
tant and  growing  evils,  the  writers  are  sorry  to  say,  but  they 
none  the  less  demand  a  hand-to-hand  combat,  in  which  good 
sense,  backed  by  genuine  scientific  knowledge  and  a  plain  dis- 
pensation of  facts,  will  in  the  intelligent,  sooner  or  later,  win  the 
day.  Mr.  Treves  very  wisely  puts  it  when  he  says  that  the 
clothing  of  girls  at  this  age  is  "  an  aggregation  of  hygienic 
errors."  The  clothing  should  be  as  light  in  weight  as  is  com- 
patible with  the  desired  degree  of  warmth.  It  should  be  so 


88  INDIVIDUAL   OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

consfructed  as  to  prevent  pulling  upon  the  hips  or  pressure  upon 
the  abdomen,  and  preferably  should  be  suspended  from  the 
shoulders.  Every  possible  freedom  of  motion  should  be  facili- 
tated by  the  freedom  and  looseness  of  the  garment. 

Diet.  The  diet  of  childhood  is  to  be  considered  as  merely  a 
sensible  diet.  Sweets  and  candies,  preserves,  cakes,  and  pies,  are 
to  be  eschewed,  and  a  substantial  diet,  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
bone  and  the  development  of  muscles,  is  to  be  encouraged.  The 
question  of  the  regularity  of  meals  is  to  be  brought  up.  Mothers 
often  discourage  feeding  between  meals,  which  is  an  error; 
children  should  be  fed  whenever  they  are  hungry;  what  has 
brought  feeding  between  meals  into  disrepute  is  giving  them 
whatever  the  taste  desires,  and  not  the  wise  administration  of 
suitable  diet  whenever  it  may  be  necessary.  If  a  child  wants  a 
drink,  let  it  have  a  drink  ;  if  it  is  hungry  for  food  instead  of  water, 
there  is  no  more  reason  for  withholding  it.  A  fruitful  cause  of 
diseases  in  children  is  regular  feeding  ;  the  child  gets  ravenously 
hungry,  and  then  overloads  its  stomach  with  the  very  first  thing 
that  is  offered  at  the  table,  thus  bankrupting  the  digestion,  dilat- 
ing the  stomach,  and  leading  indirectly  to  loss  of  appetite  and 
all  the  symptoms  of  dyspepsia,  with  its  concomitants. 

School.  At  what  time  shall  the  child  go  to  school  ?  Now,  that 
is  a  question  as  easily  answered  as  will  be  one  later :  "  At  what 
age  shall  marriage  take  place?  "  The  same  answer  will  be  given  : 
whenever  the  individual  is  old  enough  physically,  not  in  years. 
Education  is  to  begin  early,  and  the  school,  instead  of  being  the 
beginning,  should  be  a  continuation.  Intelligent  parents  begin 
the  education  of  their  children  at  extremely  tender  years.  Train 
up  inquisitiveness  in  the  child;  make  that  inquisitiveness  intelli- 
gent ;  combat  any  impertinent  inquisitiveness  by  good  reasons, 
showing  why  it  is  wrong  ;  allow  every  question  to  have  a  logical 
point  before  you  answer  it.  During  the  first  six  or  seven  years, 
the  education  should  be  by  observation.  One  might  be  able  to 
read  and  comprehend  an  encyclopedia  on  astronomy,  but  neither 
pictures  nor  text  could  ever  instruct  in  the  appearance  of  the 
moon  like  one  good,  interesting  evening's  talk,  with  the  moon  in 
view;  let  the  parent  have  nothing  about  the  house  which  he  has 
not  time  to  explain.  The  childish  picture-books  are  well 
enough,  but  you  cannot  and  should  not  expect  a  child  under 


THE    CHILD SCHOOL.  89 

seven  or  eight,  better  nine  or  ten  years,  to  settle  down  and  learn 
reading  with  the  object  of  acquiring  knowledge;  let  it  see  from 
you  how  your  ability  to  read  assists  you  ;  make  it  anxious  to 
learn  to  read.  In  other  words,  make  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge a  pleasure  and  not  labor.  This  is  no  hard  task  ;  it  is  in  the 
large  majority  of  cases  easily  directed.  The  tendency  of  the 
times  to  let  somebody  else  teach  the  children,  a  governess  or  a 
private  tutor,  may  be  commendable  in  those  who  are  too  igno- 
rant to  teach  children,  but  under  no  other  circumstances.  The 
mother  who  is  too  much  interested  in  Christianizing  savages,  or 
preventing  cruelty  to  animals,  or  lifting  drunkards,  had  better  set 
aside  some  of  her  enthusiasm  in  these  directions  and  let  the 
charity  begin  at  home.  It  is  time  that  religious  reformers,  as  well 
as  sensible  people  in  general,  should  recognize  the  fact  that  there 
will  be  barbarians  and  heathens  at  home  as  well  as  barbarians 
and  heathens  in  the  distant  climes,  unless  they  can  and  will  care 
for  the  members  of  their  own  households. 

Before  the  child  is  put  at  reading  and  study  of  books  and 
printed  matter,  it  should  be  ascertained  whether  its  physical  con- 
dition is  such  as  to  bear  the  confinement  of  the  school-room, 
which  is  usually  a  collection  of  unscientific  seats,  benches,  and 
desks,  with  windows  facing  the  pupils,  if  the  lighting  be  at  all 
efficient,  and  the  ventilation  a  little  better  than  a  dungeon  and 
not  quite  so  good  as  a  ship's  hold.  The  parent  should,  if  the 
school  teacher  does  not,  see  to  these  things,  for  no  matter  how 
well  educated  the  child  may  be,  if  the  chest  is  deformed  by  an 
improper  attitude,  and  the  health  undermined  by  poor  ventila- 
tion and  crowding,  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  any  degree  of 
knowledge  will  greatly  benefit  the  child.  The  best  way  to  find 
out  whether  a  child  is  old  enough  to  go  to  school  is  by  experi- 
ment;  send  it  to  the  best  school  in  your  neighborhood,  and  if  it 
is  able  to  successfully  combat  the  poor  hygienic  surroundings  of 
the  institution,  remains  healthy,  and  does  not  lose  flesh,  does  not 
become  pale,  is  not  weak  and  exhausted  after  its  clay's  labors,  the 
inference  will  be  that  the  child  is  able  to  attend  school  and  may 
continue.  There  may  be  cases  in  which  it  is  apparent  that  the 
child  cannot  attend.  Thus,  children  suffering  from  any  of  the 
manifestations  of  tuberculosis,  such  as  enlarged  lymphatic  glands, 

or  any  of  the  chronic  joint  diseases  to  which  childhood  is  so 
6 


OX)  INDIVIDUAL   OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

susceptible,  are  under  no  circumstances  to  be  sent  to  school. 
On  the  other  hand,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  physique  or 
general  health  of  the  child,  if,  after  attending  school  for  a  while, 
it  shows  evidence  of  giving  away  physically,  it  should  be  imme- 
diately withdrawn.  Schools,  more  than  other  buildings,  have 
three  things  that  are  bad  :  First,  bad  ventilation  ;  second,  bad 
water  supply  ;  third,  bad  water-closets  ;  and,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten,  the  heating  and  lighting  are  faulty.  These  are  all  to  be 
studied  and  remedied,  if  possible,  before  the  child  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  school-room.  Long  hours  of  mental  work  are  to  be 
discouraged  and  brief  study  hours  encouraged. 

In  the  school-life  of  children  the  great  danger  is  complicating 
studies,  that  is,  too  many  branches,  rather  than  too  much  of  any 
one  branch. 

Eyes.  The  child's  eyes  should  have  the  attention  of  the  parent 
from  the  beginning  of  school-life  until  it  has  been  thoroughly 
established  that  study,  reading,  or  similar  work  calling  upon  the 
eyes  for  protracted  exertion  does  not  weary  them  or  produce 
headache  or  other  reflex  phenomena.  There  is  nothing  which 
produces  more  annoyance,  gives  rise  to  more  difficulty,  and 
more  impedes  a  child's  learning,  than  errors  of  refraction,  which 
should  always  be  corrected. 

Baths.  During  childhood  the  baths  need  not  be  so  frequent  as 
during  infancy.  They  should  usually  be  tepid  immersion  baths 
about  three  times  a  week,  and  topical  baths  sufficiently  often  to 
insure  cleanliness  and  comfort.  Protracted  bathing,  either  in  salt 
or  fresh  water,  is  to  be  discouraged,  especially  in  younger  children. 
An  occasional  bath  in  the  sea  or  in  fresh-water  streams  may 
do  no  harm  ;  it  is  frequent  repetition  or  prolonged  dabbling 
in  the  water  that  are  to  be  condemned. 

Young  Adults  and  Adults.  Shortly  before  crossing  the 
line  between  youth  and  adult  life,  there  develops  a  tendency 
upon  the  part  of  the  individual  to  control  his  own  move- 
ments, and  when  this  point  is  reached  the  difficulty  of  apply- 
ing rules  is,  in  a  large  majority  of  cases,  entirely  overcome 
by  personal  wishes  and  individual  taste.  Ik-sides  this,  the 
different  vocations  or  professions  may  materially  differ  in  the 
demands  upon  individual  hygiene.  During  childhood  and 
the  earlier  years  of  life,  the  lawyer's  child  requires  the  same 


ADULTS — EXERCISE.  9  I 

hygienic  surroundings  as  does  the  laborer's  ;  if,  however,  when 
adult  life  is  reached  the  lawyer's  boy  becomes  a  lawyer,  and 
the  bricktnaker's  boy  a  brickmaker,  the  same  general  laws 
of  health  could  not  be  applied  in  both  cases.  When  the  brick- 
maker's  day  is  done  physical  rest  and  mental  exercise  are  most 
demanded  ;  with  the  lawyer  the  reverse  applies.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  we  must  consider  two  separate  and  distinct  classes  of 
individuals  :  those  who  live  by  mental  exertion,  and  those  whose 
lives  are  made  up  largely  of  physical  work.  In  the  first  instance, 
the  exercise  demanded  is  such  as  to  remove  the  mental  cares  of 
•the  long,  busy  day  and  devote  the  hours  of  recreation  to  the 
improvement  of  the  physique.  This  will  demand  a  horseback  ride 
in  the  Park,  a  row,  or  a  brisk  walk  ;  rarely  gymnastics  will  fill 
the  requirements.  What  has  become  popular  in  England  among 
professional  men,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  popular  in  America, 
namely,  bicycle  riding,  may  be  found  efficient.  Something 
which  demands  physical  exertion  sufficient  to  exercise  the  mus- 
cular system  and  give  tone  to  the  circulatory  apparatus  is 
needed  ;  the  cerebral  centers  are  more  or  less  exhausted  and 
should  be  relaxed  from  strain  ;  the  activity  of  the  skin  is  to  be 
stimulated  and  the  general  nutrition  of  the  system  favored  by 
reasonable  physical  exertion. 

In  the  brickmaker,  or  other  laborer,  when  his  day's  work  is 
done  the  muscles  are  often  in  a  condition  of  fatigue,  and  where 
it  is  desirable  to  develop  the  mental  faculty,  the  opportunity  is 
here  offered — reading,  a  sail  which  requires  no  physical  exer- 
tion, an  evening  excursion  in  a  pleasure  boat,  where  it  is  attain- 
able and  no  rowing  required,  and  such  other  recreations  as 
afford  physical  relaxation  or,  at  least,  as  nearly  so  as  possible, 
with  more  or  less  active  stimulation  of  the  cerebral  functions. 

The  food  of  the  two  will  differ  as  essentially  as  the  exercise  ; 
the  one  demanding  large  quantities  of  carbonaceous  food  for 
the  production  of  heat  and  muscular  force,  and  small  quantities 
of  nitrogenous  food,  while  the  other  demands  a  diametrically 
opposite  kind  of  food.  The  difference  between  the  diet  of  the 
two  will  be  taken  up  more  fully  when  considering  food. 

Bathing  is  an  essential  hygienic  feature,  and  aside  from  its 
therapeutic  application  may  be  resorted  to  for  cleanliness,  im- 
provement of  the  skin,  circulation,  the  improvement  of  nutrition, 


92  INDIVIDUAL    OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

or  the  reduction  of  body  weight.  It  is  unnecessary  to  dilate 
upon  the  necessity  of  cleanliness  as  a  hygienic  procedure,  and  it 
will  also  be  apparent  that  whatever  occupation  the  individual 
may  be  in  will  demand  a  different  degree  and  amount  of  bathing. 
Bathing  affords  a  most  admirable  stimulus  for  the  skin,  improv- 
ing the  tone  of  its  glandular  apparatus,  increasing  the  excretion 
which  is  carried  on  by  its  glands,  and  thus  relieving  the  kidneys 
and  liver  of  very  much  of  their  work. 

There  are  many  different  forms  of  bath  which  may  be  used. 
The  bath  may  be  topical  or  general,  it  may  be  a  sponge  or  an 
immersion  bath,  a  spray,  needle,  or  shower  bath.  With  regard 
to  temperature,  it  may  be  hot,  warm,  tepid,  or  cold.  There  are 
forms  of  so-called  baths  which  do  not  use  water  at  all  ;  for  exam- 
ple, sand  baths,  hot-air  baths,  and  baths  in  which  the  atmosphere 
is  impregnated  with  some  medicament  and  gases.  As  examples 
of  the  last  t\vo  we  have  oxygen  and  sulphurous  acid  baths,  the 
latter  being  occasionally  used  for  the  destruction  of  the  itch 
parasite. 

Space  does  not  afford  opportunity  for  going  into  the  considera- 
tion of  baths  in  detail.  Cold  baths  undoubtedly  contract  the 
capillaries  of  the  skin,  lessen  the  radiation  of  heat,  diminish  the 
cutaneous  circulation,  and  congest  the  viscera.  The  application 
of  cold  locally  has  practically  the  same  action  although  to  a  less 
degree.  The  hot-air  and  warm  baths  increase  the  cutaneous 
activity,  and,  while  the  cold  bath  may  reduce  the  body  tempera- 
ture, hot  air  or  hot  baths  ranging  in  temperature  from  110°  F. 
to  115°  F.  may  produce  a  marked  rise  in  temperature.  Between 
these  two  extremes  almost  any  intermediate  may  be  found  with 
a  compromise  reaction.  Where  it  is  desired  to  use  the  bath  for 
cleansing  purposes  only.it  should  be  what  has  been  described  as 
an  indifferent  bath  ;  that  is,  neither  hot  nor  cold  to  the  sensations 
of  the  bather.  In  the  use  of  extremely  hot  or  cold  or  cool  baths, 
each  individual  bather  will  have  to  make  a  selection  which  he 
finds  by  experiment  best  adapted  to  his  physical  condition.  Cold 
baths  have  been  recommended  for  the  reduction  of  flesh,  and 
seem  to  have  some  value  in  that  direction.  The  Turkish  and 
Kgyptian  baths  are  modifications  of  hot-air  baths;  the  Russian 
steam  bath  is  but  another  form  for  the  application  of  heat  and 
moisture.  Sra  bathing  practically  amounts  to  a  salt-water  bath, 


ADULTS — SPECIAL    HYGIENE.  93 

as  it  will  be  seen  that  the  chlorid  of  sodium  is  the  most  import- 
ant constituent  in  sea  water.  The  Russian  hot  air  bath  seems 
to  favor  somewhat  the  reduction  of  body  weight  ;  it  increases  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  urine,  the  amount  of  urea  and  uric  acid 
excreted.  The  hot  air  and  hot  vapor  and  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature in  the  immersion  baths  are  to  be  avoided  by  all  who  are 
not  physically  strong,  especially  by  the  old  with  diseased  blood- 
vessels, in  whom  no  small  number  of  apoplectic  attacks  have 
been  brought  on  by  bathing  in  extremes  of  temperature  ;  the 
same  is  true  of  individuals  having  a  fatty  heart. 

The  amount  of  bathing  required  by  an  adult  will  vary,  as 
already  stated,  to  an  enormous  degree-  It  would  be  safe, 
however,  to  state  that  not  less  than  two  or  three  immersion 
baths  are  to  be  taken  each  week,  that  they  should  not  be  pro- 
longed, and  experience  will  demonstrate  for  each  individual  the 
temperature  it  will  be  most  wise  for  him  to  use.  The  daily 
topical  baths  of  the  hands,  face,  etc.,  are,  of  course,  applied 
as  necessity  demands. 

Special  Hygiene.  The  Eyes.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  dust  or  dirt  from  gaining  ingress  to  the  eye.  The 
eyelashes  should  be  carefully  looked  after  and  kept  clean, 
a  matter  which  demands  special  attention.  Individuals  of  the 
most  cleanly  habits  will,  when  looking  into  a  microscope, 
very  often  sweep  their  eyelashes  across  the  eye-piece,  de- 
positing a  trace  of  dust,  thus  showing  that  the  eyelashes 
have  not  been  properly  cleansed.  Inversion  of  the  eyelashes 
should  be  looked  to,  and  where  they  are  falling  out,  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  do  not  remain  under  the  eyelids  and 
give  rise  to  irritation  of  the  conjunctiva.  In  reading,  proper 
light  should  always  be  selected,  in  which  the  essential  features 
will  be,  sufficient  light,  without  brightness  or  glare  ;  constant 
illumination  of  the  page,  without  flickering  or  shadow.  The 
light  should  come  from  over  the  shoulder  and  slightly  to  one 
side.  The  reading  matter  should  be  held  steadily,  and  the 
letters  should  look  sharp,  clear,  and  distinct,  and  where  the 
typography  is  perfect  it  should  never  be  necessary  to  get  closer 
to  the  page  or  project  the  page  further  away  after  prolonged 
study.  When  the  above  directions  have  been  carried  out  and 
there  is  evidence  of  some  effort  being  required  to  read  con- 


94  INDIVIDUAL   OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

stantly,  it  may  be  depended  upon  that  there  is  some  refractive 
error  which  should  be  corrected.  Headaches,  upon  attempts 
to  read  or  after  protracted  reading,  are  presumed  to  be  due  in 
no  small  number  of  cases  to  faulty  eyes  ;  these  should,  therefore, 
receive  the  attention  of  an  ophthalmologist. 

The  Ear.  The  external  ear  should  be  cleansed  with  every 
bath,  and  accumulations  of  wax,  dust,  and  dirt,  or  even  the 
growth  of  some  of  the  lower  forms  of  molds,  should  be  pre- 
vented by  washing  the  ear  out  three  or  four  times  a  week. 
Aside  from  careful  cleansing  at  the  time  of  bathing,  where  the 
occupation  of  the  individual  is  such  as  to  facilitate  the  ingress 
of  dust  and  particles  of  flying  matter  into  the  ear,  like  sand  and 
fragments  of  iron  and  sawdust,  a  small  pledget  of  cotton  may 
be  inserted  in  the  external  auditory  canal.  Picking  the  ear 
is  never  to  be  permitted,  as  in  no  small  number  of  cases  the 
drum  has  been  punctured,  and  scratches  have  been  made  upon 
the  walls  of  the  canal,  giving  rise  to  serious  inflammatory 
complications. 

The  Teeth.  The  child  should  be  taught  as  early  as  possible 
the  necessity  of  keeping  the  teeth  clean.  Immediately  after 
meals  all  food  should  be  picked  from  between  the  teeth  by 
means  of  a  quill  or  wooden  toothpick  ;  metal  should  never  be 
used.  The  teeth  should  be  cleansed  at  least  twice  daily,  and 
preferably  oftener,  by  suitable  brushing.  In  many  parts  of 
the  South  the  colored  people  clean  their  teeth  with  brushes 
made  by  chewing  the  stubs  of  willow,  a  practice  also  carried 
out  by  the  whites,  and  their  teeth  are  certainly  well  preserved 
and  kept  beautifully  clean.  The  writers  are  of  the  opinion  that 
the  stiff  bristle  brushes  so  commonly  used  lacerate  and  injure 
the  gums,  not  infrequently  loosening  them  from  the  teeth,  and 
are  in  themselves  inefficient  means  for  removing  accumulated 
dirt.  The  bristle-brush  is  probably  the  next  best  Billing  to 
a  wooden  brush  and  should  be  used  where  the  wooden  brush 
cannot  be  obtained.  With  dentistry  so  cheap  and  the  work 
done  so  good,  there  is  no  cause  for  allowing  decaying  teeth  to 
go  on  to  ruin. 

The  Hair.  Where  the  hair  is  kept  cut  short,  as  in  men,  it 
should  be  clipped  at  least  once  a  month.  The  scalp  should  be 
shampooed  two  or  three  times  a  week  for  the  removal  of  accu- 


ADULTS — SPECIAL    HYGIENE.  95 

mulated  dandruff  and  as  a  stimulant  to  the  cutaneous  circulation. 
Medicated  shampoos  are  rarely  if  ever  indicated,  and  it  will 
usually  be  found  that  a  good  soap  will  be  more  efficient  than  any- 
thing else  that  can  be  used.  In  women,  greater  care  will  have 
to  be  used  in  keeping  the  hair  clean.  Frequent  shampoos  are  to 
be  resorted  to,  the  hair  combed  out  once  or  twice  daily,  and 
allowed  to  thoroughly  air.  In  the  summer,  when  there  is  very 
much  perspiration,  a  daily  shampoo  will  be  demanded.  Large  ac- 
cumulations of  hair  with  excessive  weight  in  children  not  infre- 
quently are  conducive  to  headaches,  and  in  some  cases  even 
more  serious  troubles. 

The  Feet.  Foot-baths  should  be  taken  every  day.  The 
leather  covering  for  the  feet,  which  is  now  almost  universally 
used,  interferes  with  the  escape  of  the  vapors  exhaled  by  the  skin, 
and  in  order  to  maintain  cleanliness,  as  well  as  a  healthy  condi- 
tion of  the  cutaneous  covering  of  the  feet,  a 
foot-bath  every  night  should  be  used.  The  FIG.  33. 

tendency  to  the  development  of  corns  and 
bunions  and  ingrowing  toe  nails  is  largely  to 
be  combated  by  sensible  shoes.  The  cutting 
of  the  finger  and  toe  nails  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance,  as  ingrowing  nails  will  certainly  showing  on  the  left  the 

nail,  cut  square,  as  it 

ensue   if  the   ordinary  methods   be   followed.         properly  should  be; 

and,  on  the  right,  the 

The  accompanying  cut  will  illustrate  the  pro-         nail  is  Cllt  oval>  a"d 

1          J        °  as  a   consequence  the 

per  method  for  cutting  the  finger  and  toe  overgrowing  of  flesh. 
nails. 

Sex.  It  is  not  usually  demanded  that  the  young  male,  ap- 
proaching manhood,  receive  any  special  instruction  concerning 
the  hygiene  of  the  sexual  organs.  Other  than  cleanliness  but 
little  will  be  demanded.  The  dangers  of  abuse  may  well  be 
pointed  out,  and  the  necessity  for  virtue  be  made  a  part  of  such 
training  as  best  educates  the  mind.  It  is  probable  that  the  most 
pitfalls  which  entrap  the  unwary  arise  from  one  of  two  sources, 
either  improper  literature  or  unsavory  companions,  or  both  not 
uncommonly  joining  hand  in  hand.  Exclude  these,  and  but 
little  danger  may  be  anticipated  from  the  developing  sexual 
functions. 

With  the  female,  however,  entirely  different  views  must  be 
held.  The  girl  approaching  womanhood  should  know  the  pe- 


g6  INDIVIDUAL    OR    PERSONAL    HYGIENE. 

culiarities  which  characterize  her  sex.  She  should  be  early 
apprised  of  the  meaning  of  her  catamenia  and  the  hygienic  laws 
upon  which  her  health  hereafter  shall  be  based.  Her  habits  and 
dress  must  be  made  a  part  of  the  training  which  her  sex  de- 
mands. The  physical  peculiarities  of  the  individual  will  differ 
so  widely  that  universally  applicable  rules  cannot  be  formulated, 
but  must  rest  upon  the  judgment  and  experience  of  elders.  The 
educated  and  intelligent  mother  can  here  lay  the  foundation  upon 
which  will  rest  the  health  of  the  developing  woman,  while 
ignorance  may  endanger,  if  not  destroy,  the  health,  and  with  it 
the  happiness,  for  the  remaining  years  of  life. 


CHAPTER  III. 
CLOTHING. 

From  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  the  two  important  features  to 
be  considered  are :  First,  the  materials  of  which  clothing  is  made, 
and  second,  the  method  of  construction. 

The  materials  most  commonly  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
clothing  are  cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk,  jute,  the  skins  of  animals,  and 
rubber. 

Chemical  tests  are  resorted  to  in  order  to  differentiate  between 
materials  above  given  and  to  detect  the  introduction  of  cheaper 
substitutes,  or  the  substitution  of  a  cheaper  member  of  the  group 
for  a  more  expensive  one,  as  cotton  for  linen.  The  material 
to  be  examined  is  first  boiled  in  a  strong  solution  of  chlorid 
of  zinc,  and  washed  to  remove  the  silk.  It  is  then  dried,  and 
the  loss  by  weight  equals  the  amount  of  silk.  Boil  in  liquor 
soda  to  dissolve  the  wool  ;  again  wash,  dry,  and  weigh  to  deter- 
mine the  quantity  of  wool.  The  remainder  is  cotton  or  linen, 
and  it  may  be  determined  which  by  treating  with  a  solution  of 
metallic  copper  in  ammonia,  the  cotton  rapidly  dissolving. 

The  reactions  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  :  — 


Liq.  Potassa 
or 
Liq.  Soda, 
Boiling. 

Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Picric 

Acid. 

Nitric 
Acid. 

Hot  Concen- 
trated Sol. 
of 
Zinc  Chlorid. 

Sol.  of 
Metallic 
Copper  in 
Ammonia. 

COTTON,     . 

I.INEN,      .     . 

Unaffected      « 
Unaffected      j 

Gelatinous 
mass. 

Gelatinous 
mass. 

f  Slightly 
I  stained. 

f    Easily 
|  remov'd 

} 
} 

f  Slightly  I 
\  stained.  ) 

f  Slightly) 
\  stained.  / 

}    {        But 
!•  •!      slightly 
j      affected. 

Dissolved. 

f    Slowly 
\  Dissolved. 

WOOL,     .    .  '.   Dissolved       Unaffected. 

f  Stained 
(  yellow. 

} 

f  Stained  ) 
(  yellow,  f 

Unaffected. 

Swollen. 

SILK,   .    .    . 

Dissolved        Dissolved 
slowly. 

1 

{Stained 
yellow. 

} 

f  Stained  ) 
\  yellow.  } 

Dissolved. 

Dissolved. 

Microscopic  Examinations.  Chemical  examination  is  best  com- 
bined with  microscopic  examination ;  for  this  purpose  a  one  fourth 
inch  objective  of  a  good  series  will  be  needed.  The  material  to  be 
examined  is  "teased"  or  torn  by  means  of  needles  into  small 

97 


98 


CLOTHING. 


fibers,  or  it  may  be  carefully  unraveled  and  untwisted ;  the  frag- 
ments are  then  placed  upon  an  ordinary  glass  slide  and  moistened 
with  one  of  the  following  :  Water,  glycerin,  glycerin  and  water 
(equal  parts  of  each),  a  one  per  cent,  dilution  of  liquor  potassa 
or  acetic  acid,  Farrant's  medium.  Glycerin  and  water  give  very 
satisfactory  results,  and  do  not  act  chemically  upon  any  of  the 
substances  under  consideration.  A  cover-glass  is  placed  upon 


FIG.  34. 


F:c.  35. 


COTTON  FIBERS  X  200  diam. 
FIG.  36. 


LINEN  FIBEKS  X  150  diam. 
FIG.  37. 


WOOI.KN  FIIIBKS  X  200  diam. 

Central  fiber  shows  swelling  and  defective  stria- 

tion  as  observed  in  old  wool  and  shoddy. 


SILK  FIIIKKS  X  2o:>  diam. 


the  fibers,  any  excess   of  fluid  wiped  off,  and   the   microscopic 
examination  conducted  in  the  usual  manner. 

Cotton  fibers  are  about  the  one  four-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  flattened,  and  ribbon-like  in  contour  ;  the  borders 
arc  somewhat  thickened  and  the  primitive  fiber  shows  about 
six  hundred  twistings  or  turnings  to  the  inch.  Often  a  canal 
exists  in  the  fiber,  which  is,  however,  frequently  filled  with  ex- 
tractive matter. 


MATERIALS.  99 

Linen  fibers  are  cylindrical  instead  of  flat,  as  is  cotton,  the 
transverse  diameter  is  less,  and  the  fiber  is  pellucid  ;  the  ends  are 
ragged  and  uneven,  and  fine,  branching  fibrillae  extend  irregu- 
larily  outward  from  the  juncture  of  the  several  segments  of 
which  the  fiber  is  composed. 

Wool.  The  fibers  of  wool  are  tubular,  with  longitudinal, 
transverse,  and  oblique  striations.  The  transverse  striation  pro- 
duces the  appearance  of  the  fibers  being  formed  by  the  juxta- 
position of  segments  ;  while  the  effect  of  the  oblique  markings 
is  to  impart  to  the  fiber  a  seemingly  reticulated  margin.  The 
canal  is  not  unusually  obliterated.  In  old  and  worn  samples  of 
wool,  the  fibers  lose  to  a  great  extent  their  striation,  and  the 
ends  are  resolved  into  the  elementary  fibrilla::.  Frequently  old 
fibers  present  quite  a  considerable  swelling,  in  which  the  trans- 
verse markings  are  seldom  distinct. 

Jute.  The  fibers  of  jute  are  long  and  tubular,  the  outline  un- 
even, and  showing  alternately  small,  irregular  protuberances  and 
constrictions.  In  the  canals  air  bubbles  are  frequently  seen. 

Silk.  The  fibers  of  silk  are  finer  than  those  of  linen,  they 
have  sharply  defined  outlines,  do  not  branch,  are  tapering, 
knotted,  but  less  so  than  linen,  and  are  diaphanous. 

Slwddy.  This  is  an  inferior  cloth,  woven  from  old  wool,  torn 
into  shreds,  and  refuse  threads  from  the  weaving  of  woolen 
and  other  like  cloths,  excepting  silk.  The  microscope  will  dis- 
cover its  true  nature,  as  the  appearance  of  old  and  worn  woolen 
fibers  is  characteristic. 

Cotton  wears  exceedingly  well  and  does  not  shrink.  On  ac- 
count of  the  hardness  of  the  fiber,  its  inability  to  retain  moisture, 
and  its  ready  heat  conduction,  cotton  is  far  inferior  to  wool  as 
protection  against  cold.  It  conducts  heat  less  rapidly,  possibly, 
than  linen,  and  much  more  rapidly  than  wool.  The  rapidity 
with  which  it  yields  its  moisture  renders  chilling  liable  to  occur. 

Linen  has  practically  no  sanitary  advantage  over  cotton,  and, 
being  far  more  expensive,  is  much  less  used.  Compared  with 
cotton,  linen  is  a  somewhat  better  conductor  of  heat,  absorbs 
more  moisture,  and  yields  it  less  rapidly;  it  is  less  liable  to 
absorb  odors  and  outwears  cotton.  In  the  laundry,  linen  takes 
a  higher  gloss,  a  fact  upon  which  its  popularity  depends. 

Silk  has  some  distinct  advantages  over  cotton  and  linen,  in  that 


IOO  CLOTHING. 

it  is  slightly  more  absorbent  than  either  of  the  other  two.  has  a 

o          J 

greater  porosity,  and,  therefore,  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat.  It 
has  been  highly  recommended  for  underwear,  but  its  cost,  com- 
bined with  deficient  durability,  has  not  brought  it  into  popular 
favor.  The  extreme  lightness  of  silk  is  one  of  its  most  advan- 
tageous points,  as,  weight  for  weight,  it  is  nearly  four  times  as 
warm  as  wool,  and  possesses  equal  absorption  and  conduction 
properties. 

Wool.  The  advantages  which  wool  possesses  as  a  material  for 
clothing  are  its  poor  heat  conduction,  the  readiness  with  which  it 
absorbs  aqueous  vapors,  such  as  that  emanating  from  the  skin, 
and  the  gradual  evaporation  of  the  moisture,  which  precludes 
the  chilling  of  the  surface  of  the  body.  This  feature  of  absorp- 
tion and  yielding  up  of  the  water  is  largely  modified  by  the 
method  of  weaving — in  other  words,  the  texture  of  the  cloth  ; 
this  will  vary  a  great  deal,  as  some  wools  are  very  much  finer 
than  others,  the  fineness  depending  upon  the  size,  density,  flexi- 
bility, and  length  of  the  fibers.  It  would  also  appear  that  the 
color  has  something  to  do  with  the  amount  of  moisture  which  a 
given  sample  will  absorb.  The  great  disadvantage  in  woolen 
clothing,  more  particularly  that  worn  next  to  the  skin,  is  its 
great  shrinking  properties.  The  slowness  with  which  wool 
yields  up  moisture,  and  its  poor  conduction  of  heat,  make  it 
vastly  superior  to  cotton  or  linen  where  these  features  are 
desired. 

Merino.  This  is  composed  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  per  cent, 
wool  "  carded "  in  with  the  cotton.  It  is  now  made  up  so 
as  to  combine  very  nicely  some  of  the  advantages  of  both,  and  is 
a  most  excellent  compromise  where  it  would  be  too  warm  for 
the  use  of  woolen  clothes  and  too  cool  for  the  use  of  cotton.  It 
is  also  better  than  linen  where  there  is  an  excess  of  perspiration 
to  be  absorbed,  and,  in  this  respect,  proportionately  poorer 
than  wool  in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  cotton  which  it  con- 
tains. Merino  does  not  shrink,  as  does  wool,  and  stands  un- 
skilled washing  much  the  better. 

The  Skins  of  Animals.  These  may  be  worn  untannecl,  in 
which  case  they  are  known  as  furs,  but  when  tanned,  as  leather. 
The  advantages  which  they  possess  are:  they  are  poor  conduc- 
tors of  heat,  do  not  permit  the  ingress  and  egress  of  air,  and  are, 


SPECIFIC    CONSIDERATIONS.  IOI 

therefore,  extremely  warm.  As  they  retain  the  vapors  given  off 
by  the  skin  and  prevent  ventilation  of  any  garment  which  may  be 
under  them,  they  are,  for  sanitary  reasons,  objectionable.  On 
account  of  the  above  objections,  they  are  not  to  be  recommended 
as  clothing  unless  extreme  cold  should  demand  it.  So  far  as 
known,  we  have  no  substitute  for  leather  as  a  covering  for  the 
feet,  and,  although  the  above  objections  hold  good,  there  is 
nothing  less  open  to  criticism. 

Rubber  is  used  exclusively  as  a  water-proof  article  of  dress. 
Its  only  good  quality  is  that  it  prevents  the  ingress  of  moisture 
from  without,  the  reverse  being  equally  true.it  prevents  the  egress 
of  moisture  from  within,  and  is  therefore  highly  objectionable  and 
should  never  be  worn  for  any  considerable  length  of  time.  By 
reason  of  these  objections  it  has  not  been  introduced  into  the 
French  army,  as  it  is  believed  that,  with  properly  constructed 
woolen  clothing,  it  is  better  for  the  soldier  to  get  wet  than  to 
wear  rubber. 

Specific  Considerations.  For  protection  against  cold  wool  is 
to  be  preferred  ;  especially  is  this  true  of  underclothing;  and 
where  wool  is  not  sufficient  it  may  be  reinforced  by  leather,  furs 
or,  rarely,  water-proof  overclothing. 

Heat.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  thickness  and  texture  have 
very  little  to  do  with  protection  against  heat  and,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  it  will  be  found  that  the  color  will  influence  the  ab- 
sorption of  heat  rays  more  than  any  other  consideration.  Results 
based  upon  experiment  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows  : 
Direct  solar  rays  are  but  slightly  absorbed  by  white  goods  ;  next 
in  efficiency  comes  gray,  yellow,  pink,  blue,  and  mixtures  of 
these  colors,  gradually  progressing  toward  black,  which  is  most 
absorbent  of  all. 

Winds.  Rubber,  leather,  wool,  linen,  and  cotton  in  about 
the  order  named.  Where  there  is  abundant  perspiration, 
materials  wholly  or  partly  woolen  are  recommended. 

Odors.  As  a  prevention  against  the  absorption  of  odors,  it  would 
appear  from  Starkes'  experiments  that  color  and  the  hygro- 
scopic reaction  of  the  fabric  are  the  most  important  features, 
the  relation  to  odor  absorption  being  practically  the  same  as 
the  absorption  of  direct  solar  rays. 

Objectionably    Constructed    Clothing.     It  cannot   be   pos- 


IO2  CLOTHING. 

sible  to  go  into  the  construction  of  garments  in  anything  like 
a  specific  manner;  besides  the  demanded  brevity,  we  have  to 
consider  that  the  evolving  cycle  of  fashion,  to  which,  unfor- 
tunately, all  humanity  is  more  or  less  a  slave,  would  wreck  the 
best  laid  plans  for  hygienic  construction.  Dress  reformers 
have  agitated  this  matter  and  worked  at  it  faithfully  and  con- 
scientiously without  any  apparent  success.  Spasmodic  devia- 
tions from  the  general  rule  are  of  worse  than  questionable 
utility.  The  abandonment  of  the  corset  or  the  narrow-toed 
shoe  for  a  week  or  a  season  is  a  step  in  the  proper  direction, 
but  where  one  climbs  only  to  fall,  the  shorter  the  ascent  the  less 
harm  will  be  done  by  the  descent.  There  are,  however,  some 
features  which  demand  the  attention  of  the  careful  physician, 
and  to  some  of  these  we  propose  to  briefly  allude. 

The  wearing  of  the  corset  has  been  criticized  from  all  sides, 
as  far  as  professional  views  could  be  expressed.  The  surgeon, 
on  account  of  the  liability  to  the  development  of  tumors  of  the 
breast  and  the  possibility  of  inducing  hernia;  the  obstetrician,  upon 
the  theoretical  ground  of  displacement  downward  of  the  pelvic 
viscera;  the  medical  man,  with  a  probably  better  reason  than 
any  of  the  others,  upon  the  ground  of  inducing  torpidity  of  the 
digestive  functions,  atrophy  of  the  accessory  muscles  and  the 
abdominal  walls,  the  interference  with  respiration,  and  the 
possible  tendency  toward  the  development  of  nervous  condi- 
tions associated  more  or  less  intimately  with  some  of  the 
above-mentioned  factors.  There  is  another  view  to  us  ap- 
parent. The  pressure  is  begun  early;  it  is  protracted  and 
must  of  necessity  interfere  with  the  development  of  all  those 
organs  upon  which  pressure  is  made  ;  the  circulation  must  be 
interfered  with  and  the  tendency  toward  the  development  of 
varicose  veins  and  other  conditions  in  the  limbs  of  the  female 
depending  upon  obstructed  blood-flow  must  be  largely  derived 
from  some  of  the  effects  laid  at  the  door  of  the  corset.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  woman  who  wears  a  corset  is  comfort- 
able, and  to  go  without  it  would  be  a  temporary  discomfort ;  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  African  savage,  who,  to  go  without 
her  ring  in  her  nose  and  ears  and  lips,  would  feel  temporarily  great 
discomfort.  Added  to  the  corset  curse,  we  have  the  suspension 
or  carrying  of  all  clothing  below  the  waist,  either  from  or  upon  the 


OBJECTIONABLY    CONSTRUCTED    CLOTHING.  IO3 

hips,  thus  adding  weight  to  the  pressure  already  borne  by  the 
abdominal  muscles  and  the  crest  of  the  pelvis.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  development  of  all  organs  implicated  in  the 
wearing  of  clothing  is  more  or  less  retarded  by  the  pressure 
exerted  and  the  interference  with  free  movement,  a  fact  borne 
out  most  fully  when  one  studies  the  physical  development  of 
the  savage  not  so  encumbered,  in  which,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  the  nuder  races  afford  the  best  types  of  physical  develop- 
ment. This  is  to  be  explained  almost  entirely  upon  the  basis 
of  interference  with  function,  and,  hence,  any  clothing  which 
does  not  interfere  with  the  function  of  organs  will  most 
nearly  approach  the  ideal  of  the  true  dress  reformer. 

Not  only  does  the  wearing  of  improperly  constructed  clothing 
lessen  functional  activity  for  the  time  worn,  but  its  continuous 
wear  leads  to,  first,  the  atrophy  and,  finally,  the  disappearance  of 
histological  and  anatomical  structures  whose  functions  are  not 
easily  replaced.  Where  one  recognizes  physical  as  well  as 
mental  evolution,  the  outcome  must  be  to  the  final  injury  of 
the  race. 

What  is  true  of  the  corset  is  equally  true  of  the  encircling 
garter  and  all  similar  appliances  which  by  pressure  interfere  with 
the  circulation  or  exert  direct  compression  on  the  muscles,  etc., 
leading  to  atrophy  of  anatomical  elements.  The  retardation  of 
the  circulation  not  only  conduces  to  the  production  of  conditions 
above  pointed  out,  but  leads  to  the  deposition  of  fat.  Thus  it 
will  ever  be  found  that  where  women  are  lacing  to  secure  the 
reduction  of  obesity,  the  obesity  increases  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  lacing  which  is  resorted  to.  There  is  not  a 
medical  man  of  extensive  practice  who  has  not  recognized  this 
fact,  and  until  the  theory  of  obstructed  circulation  was  brought 
forward  no  explanation  of  the  phenomena  could  be  adduced  to 
fully  accord  with  the  facts. 

Next  to  the  corset  and  tight-band  curse,  the  modern  shoe  is 
probably  deserving  of  most  censure.  In  this  error  women  lead 
the  way,  although  they  are  by  no  means  the  vainer  of  the  two 
sexes.  At  the  very  earliest  period  of  human  life  this  modification 
of  Chinese  barbarism  is  encouraged,  and  the  developing  foot, 
with  all  its  complex  muscular,  osseous,  nervous,  and  circulatory 
appurtenances,  is  pinched  and  distorted  into  shapes  never  found 


IO4  CLOTHING. 

in  all  the  monstrosities  that  nature  has  conceived  and  brought 
forth.  The  beauty  of  the  plantar  arch  converted  into  a  flattened 
surface,  the  little  toe  crowded  under  its  neighbor,  and  its  neighbor 
pinched  beneath  the  next  toe,  the  entire  foot  shot  forward  and 
the  toes  doubled  up  by  that  abomination  of  a  high  heel,  which, 
by  precluding  heel-and-toe  walking  and  artificially  elevating  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  foot,  leads  directly  to  progressive  wast- 
ing of  the  muscles  of  the  calf.  Following  the  atrophic  changes  in 
the  leg,  we  have  that  "mincing"  gait  now  so  commonly  observed 
on  the  street  and  in  the  parlor.  In  order  to  make  the  foot 
appear  small,  the  shoe-heel  is  placed  far  in  front  of  the  bony 
prominence  intended  for  receiving  the  weight,  and  the  resulting 
pressure  leads  to  atrophy  of  the  plantar  ligaments  and  the 
gradual  dissolution  of  the  arch  upon  which  feminine  beauty  once 
prided  itself. 

Baldness.  As  an  example  of  improper  clothing  being  con- 
ducive to  the  development  of  disease,  we  have  baldness  as  a  most 
admirable  example.  The  rareness  of  this  disease  among  women 
and  savages  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  head  is  not  encased 
in  an  unventilated  covering,  the  circumferential  and  nervous  sup- 
ply not  impeded,  as  is  the  case  in  the  so-called  civilized  man. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  but  what  this  factor  is  the  cause  of  a  large 
percentage  of  baldness,  and  it  may  be  further  asserted,  upon  the 
very  best  of  grounds,  that  man  is  not  likely  to  modify  his  head- 
gear to  a  sufficient  degree  to  arrest  the  rapidly  spreading 
malady. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
FOOD. 

We  may  consider  as  food  any  substance  which  is  capable  of 
replacing  or  constructing  tissue,  or  which  enters  into  the  devel- 
opment of  any  of  those  complex  vital  processes  which  we  desig- 
nate as  functional  activity,  energy,  heat,  or  its  equivalent, 
force. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  definition  of  necessity  embraces 
air  and  water.  By  mutual  consent,  however,  writers  have  con- 
sidered these  separately,  at  the  same  time  with  the  distinct 
understanding  that  they  are  foods. 

There  are  two  sources  to  which  we  may  look  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  general  basis  upon  which  to  estimate,  first,  the  mater- 
ials demanded  by  the  economy  and,  second,  the  quantity  of  food 
required.  Of  these  the  first  may  be  obtained  by  estimates  based 
upon  the  composition  of  the  blood  and  other  tissues,  thus  giving 
the  material  demanded.  These  calculations  may  be  upon  the 
proximate  principles  or  upon  the  ultimate  elements  of  which  the 
tissues  are  composed.  Given  the  materials  demanded,  the 
quantity  is  estimated  with  much  less  accuracy  by  determining 
the  amount  of  food  necessary  to  produce,  by  the  process  of  com- 
bustion and  oxidation,  the  different  excreta  which  are  given  off 
by  the  human  organism. 

Perfected  chemistry  has  shown  in  a  very  definite  manner  the 
amount  of  ultimate  equivalent  given  off  by  the  economy,  and, 
with  fairly  accurate  observations  and  reasoning,  the  probable 
source  of  each. 

All  tissues  being  derived  from  the  blood,  the  body  nutri- 
tion and  function  being  maintained  through  the  same  agency, 
and  as  the  blood  is  supplied  from  the  food,  it  is  reasonable 
to  presume  that  the  same  elements  should  be  present  in  all 
three. 

7  105 


IO6  FOOD. 

Table  showing  the  proximate  composition  of  the  blood  : — * 


Water  

.    781.600 

Globulin,    

....    IBS-000 

Albumin,   

70.000 

Fibrin,    

2.500 

Serolin,                    .... 

0025 

Cholesterin,   

.    .        0.125 

r 

Oleate            ] 

Sodium,     -j 

Margarate      1-    .    .    .    . 

....        1.400 

I 

Stearate         J 

Potassium,                           "j 

Sodium, 

Chlorid                 .    .    .    . 

....        3-5oo 

Magnesium,                       J 

D     •                  f 

Carbonate      ] 

Potassium, 
Sodium,                                j 

Sulphate 
Phosphate       | 

Free  Soda,    

[* 

.    .        2.850 

Magnesium, 

Sulphate         | 
Phosphate       j 

Calcium  phosphate, 

.    .    .    j 

Iron,  

0.550 

Extractive  undetermined, 

....        2.450 

IOOO.OOO 

It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  above  table  that  the  blood 
contains  water,  chlorid  of  sodium,  phosphates  of  magnesium  and 
potassium,  and  other  inorganic  salts,  which  from  a  superficial 
view  would  not  be  included  as  foods.  They  are,  nevertheless, 
useful  in  the  animal  economy  for  replacing  tissue  and  carrying 
on  function,  and  hence,  they  are  foods. 

While  the  proximate  principles  indicate  the  materials  to  be 
supplied,  they  do  not  present  the  food  as  actually  consumed. 
They  are  the  vitalized  foods  proper,  and  to  these  must  be  added 
the  accessory  foods  and  condiments. 

Source  and  Quantity  of  Food.  The  organic  foods  include,  as 
man  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  selected  products  from  all  king- 
doms. From  the  animal  kingdom  we  utilize  the  flesh  and  milk 

O 

of  the  mammalia,  the  eggs  and  flesh  of  the  ovipara  ;  from  the  veg- 
etable kingdom,  the  seeds  of  plants  (cereals,  legumes),  roots, 
herbs,  fruits,  etc.  The  inorganic  foods  come  largely  as  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  organic  and  also  as  condiments,  salt  affording 
an  example. 

The  proximate  principles  found  in  tissues  are  supplied  by  simi- 
lar principles  in  food,  and  as  all  vital  action  demands  the  destruc- 

*  After  Chapman. 


ANIMAL    FOODS — MILK.  IO/ 

tion  of  tissue  to  produce  heat  and  force,  food  must  supply  the 
requisites.  For  these  reasons  it  was  at  one  time  believed  that 
all  foods  might  be  divided  into  those  supplying  tissue  wear  or 
waste,  and  those  utilized  for  combustion  and  the  production  of 
heat  and  its  physical  equivalent — force.  Such  a  division  is  no 
longer  believed  to  be  fully  in  accord  with  the  most  modern  phy- 
siological observations,  but  the  subdivisions  of  food,  which  arose 
during  the  idealization  of  food  calculation,  are  still  retained. 
These  are  the  food  proximate  principles  which  supply  tissue 
proximate  principles.  Of  these  there  are  four  groups:  1st. 
The  foods  in  which  nitrogen  forms  the  most  prominent  factor. 
In  this  group  we  include  albumin,  syntonin,  myosin,  fibrin, 
serolin,  globulin,  etc.  The  members  of  this  group  are  known  as 
proteids,  aibuminatcs,  albuminoids,  nitrogenous  compounds,  and 
under  similar  designations,  signifying  either  their  origin,  process 
of  assimilation,  or  ultimate  composition.  In  the  latter  they  are 
reasonably  uniform,  affording  about  17  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
2d.  The/ats  or  liydrocarbons,  including  both  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble fats,  have  an  almost  uniform  composition  in  which  carbon 
forms  the  most  important  factor.  3d.  The  carbohydrates,  in  which 
carbon  is  again  the  most  prominent  factor,  combined  with  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  the  latter  two  elements  in  the  proportion  to 
form  water.  To  this  group  belong  the  starches  and  saccharin 
foods.  The  intimate  association,  both  chemically  and  physio- 
logically, existing  between  the  latter  two  groups  has  led  a  number 
of  physiologists  to  classify  them  together  under  the  general  head 
of  fats  and  starches.  4th.  This  group  includes  the  inorganic  com- 
pounds and  demands  no  comment.  The  relative  value  of  the 
members  of  the  four  groups  may  be  summed  up  in  ultimate  com- 
position approximately  as  follows  : — 

I  oz.  albuminate  contains  70  grs.  of  nitrogen,  ....  2i2grs.  carbon. 

I  oz.  fat  contains 336  grs.  carbon. 

I  oz.  carbohydrates  contains 190  grs.  carbon. 

ANIMAL   FOODS. 

Milk,  as  pointed  out  by  Prout  and  others,  affords  one  of  the 
best  forms  of  food  and  contains  within  itself  all  of  the  essential 
elements  necessary  for  the  production  of  tissue,  heat,  force,  and 
function.  It  includes  all  four  divisions  of  food  to  which  we 


IO8  FOOD. 

have  referred.  If  the  accompanying  formulae  for  human  milk 
and  cows'  milk  be  closely  examined,  the  relation  existing  between 
the  constituents  of  the  blood  as  already  given  and  the  elements 
present  in  milk  will  be  evident : — 


COMPOSITION  OF  MILK. 
HUMAN   (after  Chapman'},                             Cow  (after  C.    Cameron}. 
Water,                                      902.717        Water.    .    .                                      870.000 

Butter,       .    .    .     25.000 
Casein,      .    .    .     29.000 
Sugar,  ....     37.000 
I,acto-protein,         i.ooo 
Salts  4.283 
Solids  not    fat,     71,283 
Total  of  solids,  .    .    .         96.283 

Fat  

40.000 
41.000 
42.800 

6.  200 
90.000 
.    .    .        130.000 

Casein,  

Sugar,    
Salts,  

Solids  not  fat,  .    . 
Total  of  solids,  . 

I 

Gases  in  Solution 

IOOO.OOO. 

f  Oxygen,   

IOOO  OOO 

29  |  30  parts  per 
17  [•     looo  in 
54  1      volume. 

•1  Nitrogen, 

.12, 

1  Carbonic  acid, 

,     16. 

Milk  probably  represents  the  only  food  upon  which  alone  life 
can  be  maintained  for  any  prolonged  period,  and  the  quantity 
necessary  will  vary  enormously  under  different  circumstances. 
The  writers  are  aware  of  a  patient  who  lived  three  years  upon 
from  three  to  five  pints  of  milk  daily,  and  a  patient  in  the  Hospital 
of  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  suffering  from  carcinoma  of 
the  gullet,  received  three  pints  of  milk  daily  and  gained  consider- 
able weight  and  strength  during  the  period  of  thirteen  months. 
The  quantity  of  milk  which  will  be  necessary  for  food  will  vary 
with  the  quality  of  milk,  the  surrounding  temperature,  humidity, 
digestion,  and  other  factors  ;  but  as  a  general  rule  it  will  be 
between  fifty  and  sixty  ounces.  The  writers  are  inclined  to  think 
that  this  estimate  is  a  little  high,  but  at  the  same  time  it  has  been 
found  necessary  at  times  to  reach  the  latter  amount. 

Milk  has  the  additional  advantage  in  that  it  can  be  pre- 
digestecl  to  a  certain  extent.  Thus  the  availability  of  the  food 
value  of  milk  is  greatly  enhanced  by  peptonizing  or  by  ferment- 
ing, as  is  done  in  preparation  of  koumiss  and  kefir.  Milk  also 
has  the  advantage  that  it  may  be  preserved  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  if  proper  care  be  used.  Thus,  if  milk  be  entirely 
sterilixed  and  kept  in  closed  vessels,  it  will  be  found  valuable  for 
food  even  after  several  days.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by 
reason  of  its  excellence  as  a  culture  medium  for  microorgan- 


ANIMAL    FOODS MILK.  IOCJ 

isms,  milk  should  always  be  sterili/ecl  in  the  summer,  and  prefer- 
ably even  in  the  winter  months. 

From  rather  prolonged  observation  at  the  Philadelphia  Sanita- 
rium for  Children,  the  writers  feel  convinced  that  no  artificial 
food  is  to  be  compared  with  sterilized  milk  for  the  feeding  of 
infants.  It  is  our  opinion  that  where  sterilized  milk  has  not 
given  satisfaction  as  a  food,  the  sterilization  has  been  delayed 
until  fermentation  has  set  in, and  that  its  efficiency  as  a  food  was 
interfered  with  by  the  presence  of  bacterial  products  developed 
before  the  heat  had  been  utilized  for  the  killing  of  the  bacteria. 

Milk  may  be  best  preserved  by  some  of  the  forms  of  condens- 
ing by  evaporation.  Of  these  there  are  several,  each  of  which 
presents  some  distinct  advantage.  Milk  preserved  by  evapora- 
tion alone,  unless  the  evaporation  be  done  to  dryness,  does  not 
keep  well  after  the  sealed  cans  have  been  opened.  However, 
milk  preserved  by  evaporation  and  the  addition  of  sugar  keeps 
very  well,  even  after  the  cans  are  opened. 

The  one  great  objection  to  milk  is  the  danger  of  its  contamina- 
tion and  adulteration ;  it  is  the  only  animal  food  which  we 
habitually  eat  raw,  and,  therefore,  being  uncooked,  is  more 
likely  to  contain  elements  of  danger  than  were  it  possible  to 
properly  cook  it.  The  most  common  adulteration  of  milk  con- 
sists in  the  addition  of  water.  Battershall  states  that  until  1883, 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  of  the  120,000,000  of  quarts  of  milk 
annually  brought  into  New  York  city,  there  was  an  intentional 
dilution  by  the  addition  of  40,000,000  of  quarts  of  water.  Of  two 
hundred  and  forty-one  samples  of  milk  examined  by  the  Public 
Analyst  of  Eastern  Massachusetts,  over  one-fifth  were  watered. 
It  is,  therefore,  to  be  seen  that  the  prevalence  of  watered  milk  is 
very  common.  The  dangers  arising  from  watered  milk  are  two- 
fold. In  the  first  place,  we  have  the  lessened  nutritive  value  of 
the  food,  as  a  matter  of  course  ;  and  second,  the  water  which  is 
brought  in  with  the  food  is  likely  to  contain  infective  material, 
thus  poisoning  the  milk  prior  to  its  distribution.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  this,  we  have  typhoid  fever,  which  may,  undoubtedly,  be 
communicated  by  adulterated  milk  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
malaria  and  allied  conditions  could  be  spread  through  milk 
which  has  been  adulterated  with  water  containing  the  organisms 
of  paludism  or  other  parasites.  Another  very  common  method 


IIO  FOOD. 

of  adulteration  consists  in  extracting  a  portion  of  the  cream; 
this  is  accomplished  at  creameries  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

Tyrotoxicon.  Certain  poisonous  conditions  are  known  to  de- 
velop in  milk,  but  as  yet  few  of  these  have  been  completely  worked 
out.  Tyrotoxicon  poisoning  has  been  fully  studied  by  Professor 
Vaughn,  who  has  isolated  the  poison,  not  only  from  milk  and 
cheese,  but  from  ice  cream,  which  has  given  rise  to  tyrotoxicon 
poisoning.  The  material  itself  is  probably  a  product  of  bacterial 
development. 

Contagious  Diseases.  The  question  has  arisen  and  remains  un- 
answered, whether  the  contagious  diseases  of  childhood,  such  as 
measles,  scarlet  fever,  etc.,  have  their  analogue  in  the  diseases  of 
the  milch  cow.  If  such  be  the  case,  the  possible  propagation  of 
such  diseases  from  diseased  cows  would  be,  of  course,  established. 
The  investigations  into  the  outbreak  of  scarlet  fever  from  milk 
supplied  from  cows  suffering  from  a  rather  peculiar  disease 
(Haddon's  milch  cow  disease)  was  negative  in  its  results. 

That  cowpox  is  more  or  less  intimately  related  to  smallpox, 
seems  to  be  well  established  ;  whether  such  be  the  case  in  allied 
diseases  remains  to  be  proven. 

Bacterial  Diseases.  Tuberculosis  can  undoubtedly  be  propa- 
gated through  milk  from  cows  suffering  with  the  disease,  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  anthrax,  actinomycosis,  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  bacterial  diseases  might  be  spread  through  milk  con- 
taining microorganisms,  which  act  as  the  cause  of  such  diseases. 

Milk  from  all  animals  suffering  from  any  diseases  of  bacterial 
origin  should  be  rejected  for  food  ;  for  although  it  may  be  im- 
possible to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  the  bacterial  agent  in 
any  given  sample  of  milk,  it  is  probable  that  the  cow  suffering 
from  the  disease  will  transmit  the  bacteria. 

Souring  and  Curdling.  Some  very  interesting  questions  have 
arisen  as  to  the  souring  and  curdling  point  of  milk.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  souring  and  curdling  were  identical  processes; 
again,  it  is  believed  that  curdling  is  a  physiological  process  in 
milk,  due  to  gaseous  changes  or  the  yielding  of  some  constituent 
in  the  same  manner  as  blood  clots, and  that  souring  is  of  necessity 
a  bacterial  process.  While  this  matter  has  not  been  thoroughly 
investigated,  there  are  abundant  reasons  for  believing  that,  as  it 
ordinarily  occurs,  it  is  a  complex  process.  Sterile  milk  does  not 


MILK    EXAMINATION.  Ill 

coagulate  or  clot  in  the  same  manner  as  does  unsterile  milk.  The 
theory  as  ordinarily  given  for  milk  becoming  sour  is  that  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  milk  is  given  off,  and  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  from  the  air  favors  the  development  of  lactic  acid  from 
the  casein.  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  this  theory  is  correct ;  the 
bacterial  agent  most  common  in  milk,  bacillus  acidi  lactici,  in 
its  growth  gives  off  carbonic  acid  and  takes  up  oxygen,  and  one 
cannot  infer  that  such  a  process  could  be  spontaneous.  Bacteria 
are  probably  the  exclusive  sources  of  lactic  acid  in  milk. 

Milk  will  rapidly  absorb  foul  odors.  In  improperly  kept 
dairies,  the  milk  very  promptly  takes  up  large  quantities  of 
ammonia,  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  other  gases.  These  gase- 
ous materials  held  in  solution  are  not,  of  necessity,  injurious  ; 
they  are,  however,  indicative  of  such  an  unsanitary  condition  of 
the  utensils,  or  faulty  collection  and  storage  of  milk,  as  to  render 
it  unsafe  for  food. 

No  sanitarian  can  vouch  for  the  quality  and  healthfulness  of 
milk  unless  the  cows,  dairy,  containers,  all  coming  in  contact 
with  the  milk,  can  be  kept  under  observation.  The  purity  of 
milk  is  more  dependent  upon  these  than  upon  the  percentage  of 
cream  or  the  quantity  of  solids.  Legislation  which  fails  to  con- 
sider the  cow  and  her  environment,  the  handling  and  storage  of 
milk,  is  faulty,  no  matter  what  it  may  adopt  as  the  requisite  per- 
centage of  solids  or  cream  which  salable  milk  must  contain. 

When  milk  is  watered,  it  becomes,  of  course,  the  carrier  of 
whatever  diseases  the  water  itself  is  liable  to  transmit. 

Milk  Examination.  For  determining  the  presence  of  water 
in  milk,  a  form  of  hydrometer,  known  as  the  lactometer,  is  in 
general  use.  The  accompanying  diagrams  of  lactometers  will 
give  an  idea  of  their  essential  features.  The  lactometer  used 
in  Boston  consists  of  an  ordinary  hydrometer,  graduated  in 
degrees  from  1000  to  1040.  In  New  York  a  similar  instru- 
ment is  used,  except  that  instead  of  1000,  the  mark  is  made  I, 
and  the  graduations  are  extended  up  to  100,  which  would  occupy 
the  point  of  1.029  taken  as  a  minimum  density  of  unadulterated 
milk.  Above  this,  the  graduations  extend  to  120,  giving  an 
equivalent  of  1.0348  of  specific  gravity.  Observations  with  the 
lactometer  are  made  at  a  constant  temperature  of  15°  C.  or  59°  F., 
and  note  should  be  made  of  the  color  and  consistency  of  the 


I  12 


FOOD. 


FIG.  38. 


^ 


r 

^  L 


sample.  As  the  graduations  are  made  in  the  New  York  lactome- 
ter, the  percentage  of  water  is  easily  estimated  or  is  properly 
read  off  from  the  lactometer;  e.g.,  if  the  lactom- 
eter registers  70,  it  indicates  that  there  are  30 
parts  of  water  and  70  parts  of  unadulterated 
milk ;  this  method  of  reading  affords  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  over  the  calculations  neces- 
sary with  the  ordinary  hydrometer.  A  lactome- 
ter has  been  proposed  which  reads  off  directly 
the  amount  of  solids,  and  the  graduations  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  O  rep- 
resents the  specific  gravity  of  1000;  that  means, 
of  course,  that  the  fluid  examined  is  free  from 
solids,  while  the  reading  of  14  indicates  14  per 
cent,  of  solids,  so  that  the  graduations  have  an 
immediate  significance  and  do  not  demand  any 
calculation. 

The  percentage  of  total  solids  considered  com- 
patible with  unadulterated  milk  ranges  between 
twelve  and  thirteen  per  cent,  by  weight.  This 
estimate  includes  the  fatty  and  non-fatty  solids. 
The  fatty  solids  are  usually  given  as  from  3  to 
3.7  per  cent,  by  weight;  the  non-fatty  solids 
from  8.5  to  9.5  per  cent,  by  weight. 

There  is  no  practical  choice  between  these 
three  instruments  except  as  matters  of  individual 
taste.  The  results  attainable  by  this  method 
are  not  absolute  ;  they,  however,  in  intelligent 
hands  afford  most  excellent  clues,  and  the 
method  is  entirely  applicable  where  prolonged 
volumetric  analysis  would  not  be  possible. 
The  objections  to  the  lactometer  have  been 
founded  for  the  most  part  upon  the  fact  that  milk 
which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  cream  will 
give  a  lower  reading  and  therefore  indicate  poorer  milk  than  a 
similar  article  containing  very  much  less  cream,  but,  as  Batter- 
shall  expresses  it, — "  With  the  exercise  of  ordinary  intelligence, 
this  contingency  seldom  arises,  as  the  proportion  of  cream  re- 
quired to  reduce  a  specific  gravity  to  that  of  watered  milk  would 


Stem  on  the  r 
uated 

item  < 

aduation 
New 

York.  Central  stem 
graduated  to  show 
percentage 


of  solids 


CREAMOMETER — FESEK  S    LACTOSCOPE. 


FIG.  39. 


— +-* 


CKEAMOMKTFH. 


be  more  than  sufficient  to  obviate  any  danger  of  mistaking  the 
cause  of  decreased  density." 

The  quantity  of  fat  or  cream  which  milk  should  contain  varies 
considerably,  ranging  from  3.5  to  5  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  bulk.  Until  recently  there  has  been 
no  accurate  instrument  for  estimating  the  amount 
of  cream  which  is  present  in  a  given  sample  of 
milk.  Two  instruments  which  have  been  most 
used  are  the  creamometer  and  Feser's  lactoscope. 

The  crcamoineter  consists  of  a  cylindrical,  glass 
hydrometer  jar,  having  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
eight  inches  and  preferably  ten,  with  a  transverse 
diameter  of  not    more   than   one    and   one-half 
inches.     Beginning  about  one-half  inch  from  the 
top,  the  jar  is  graduated  downward  in  percentage 
of  volume  for  the  whole  jar.     After  the  milk  to 
be  tested  is  poured  into  the  jar  as  high   as  the 
upper  line  of  the  graduation,  marked  o,  the  jar 
is  then  set  aside  in  a  cool  place  for  twelve  hours, 
when  the  quantity  of  cream  may  be  read  off  in  per  cent,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  adjoining  scale.    The  instrument  is  only  approximate. 
It  has  been  found  of  use  by  confectioners  who  desire  to  estimate 
the  quantity  of  cream  in  milk  preparatory  to  making  ice  cream. 

Fcscrs  Lactoscope  is  an  instrument  which  apparently  gives 
reasonably  reliable  results.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  parts, 
a  cylindrical  tube  six  inches  in  length  and  i3%  inches  in  diameter. 
At  the  upper  end  it  is  rapidly  contracted  to  */>  inch  in  diameter. 
At  thelo\ver  end,  a  \l/2  inch  cylinder  is  drawn  out  in  a  prolonga- 
tion two  inches  in  length  and  "a  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  at  the 
termination  of  which  is  fitted  a  metal  cap  perforated  by  a  single 
opening  T7^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Beginning  at  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  larger  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  a  graduation  is  made 
based  upon  two  factors:  First,  a  graduation  indicating  the 
amount  of  water  which  has  been  added  in  order  to  bring  the 
milk  to  the  point  marked  ;  and,  second,  the  figure,  at  the  other 
end  of  the  graduation  mark,  indicates  the  percentage  of  cream. 
The  second  part  of  the  lactoscope  consists  of  a  pedestal  accur- 
ately ground  to  act  as  a  stopper  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar.  There 
is  mounted  on  this  pedestal  an  enamel  glass  rod  $$  of  an  inch 


FOOD. 


FIG 


in  diameter,  which  extends  upward  into  the  contracted  portion  of 
the  cylinder  for  i  ^  inches.  On  the  side  of  the  enamel  glass  rod 
there  are  six  lines  engraved  and  blackened;  the 
distance  between  the  lines  and  the  length  of  each 
line  is  y3^  of  an  inch.  Accompanying  the  lacto- 
scope there  is  also  a  pipette,  which  is  graduated 
for  4  c.  c.  To  use  the  lactoscope,  the  milk  to  be 
examined  is  well  shaken  and  thoroughly  mixed, 
after  which  the  pipette  is  filled  and  emptied  into 
the  lactoscope,  care  being  taken  that  the  metal 
base  is  pressed  securely  into  the  cap  so  that  leak- 
age will  not  occur.  Water  is  then  gradually 

FIG.  41. 


3  =_ 


-       I 


-1 

»'-^«a 

44 

UH  S 

- 

-3^44 

^ 

—  1* 

u. 

I 

U  1 

FESER'S   LACTOSCOPE. 

i.  Graduated  cylinder, 
into  which  fits  the 
base  2.  Pedestal  with 
attached  engraved 
rod.  When  in  place 
this  fits  accurately 
the  metal  cup  on  the 
bottom  of  part  i,and 
the  engraved  rod 
reaches  almost  to  the 
upper  limit  of  the 
contracted  lower  end 
of  part  i.  3  Pipette 
for  measuring  the 
milk. 


BKIMLING  PATENT  MILK  TEST.      Machine  used  in 
making  test. 


added  to  the  milk  with  frequent  agitation  until  the  mixture  be- 
comes sufficiently  clear  for  the  black  lines  on  the  rod  to  be  dis- 
cernible. When  these  can  be  plainly  seen  and  counted,  then  all 
that  remains  is  to  read  off  under  the  percentage  of  cream  column 
the  percentage  of  cream  which  the  given  sample  contains.  This 
instrument  has  been  found  reasonably  accurate  and  affords  an 
easy  and  rapid  method  of  estimating  the  percentage  of  cream. 

Another  method  for  estimating  the  percentage  of  butter-fat  in 
milk  consists   in  the  use  of  an  apparatus  patented  and  known  as 


BE1MLING    MILK    TEST.  115 

the  "  Beimling  Patent  Milk  Test."*  The  apparatus  used  consists 
of  a  centrifugal-acting  machine,  test  bottles,  and  pipettes,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration.  The  reagents  used  are  known 
as  Compound  No.  I  and  Compound  No.  2.  Compound  No.  i  is 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  amyl  alcohol  and  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Compound  No.  2  is  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The 
following  are  the  instructions  for  the  making  of  the  test, as  issued 
by  the  patentee  : — 

When  possible,  make  tests  in  a  warm,  comfortable  room. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  getting  the  sample  of  milk 
to  be  tested. 

If  from  pail  or  other  vessel,  stir  well  before  taking  sample.  If 
from  weigh  can,  extract  the  sample  immediately  after  the  milk 
has  been  emptied  from  the  farmer's  can  into  the  weigh  can.  For 
convenience  in  handling,  the  samples  should  be  put  into  heavy 
one  and  one  quarter  by  five-inch  test  jars.  Enough  milk  should 
betaken  to  fill  the  jar  about  three-fifths  full.  Before  the  samples 
are  taken  from  the  test  jars  into  the  test  bottles,  the  milk  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  up.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  pour- 
ing from  one  jar  to  another  several  times,  or  by  drawing  a  milk 
pipette  full  of  milk  and  quickly  discharging  it  into  the  test  jar 
before  the  cream  has  time  to  raise  very  much.  If  samples  of 
curded,  sour  milk,  are  to  be  taken,  mix  in  five  per  cent,  of  strong 
ammonia  water,  which  will  dissolve  the  curd.  When  the  am- 
monia water  is  used,  the  final  result  should  be  increased  by  five 
per  cent. 

Measuring  the  Milk.  After  the  milk  from  which  the  sample 
is  to  be  taken  has  been  sufficiently  mixed,  fill  the  15  c.  c., 
or  milk  pipette,  by  placing  the  lower  end  in  the  milk  and 
sucking  at  the  upper  end  until  the  milk  rises  above  the  mark 
on  the  stem,  then  remove  the  pipette  from  the  mouth  and 
quickly  close  the  upper  end  of  the  tube  by  placing  the  thumb 
and  index  finger  upon  it.  Carefully  relieve  the  pressure,  allow- 
ing the  milk  to  settle,  until  the  upper  surface  of  the  milk  is  even 
with  the  mark  on  the  stem.  Next  place  the  lower  end  of  the 
pipette  in  a  test  bottle  and  discharge  the  contents  by  blowing  in 
the  upper  end. 


*  LefTinann-Beam  method. 


n6 


FOOD. 


It  is  best  to  clean  the  pipette  by  drawing  water  into  it  after 
each  test.  If  several  tests  of  the  same  milk  are  to  be  made, 
the  milk  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  after  each  sample  is 
taken. 

Adding  tlie  Acid.  After  the  milk  has  been  measured  into 
the  test  tubes,  add  3  c.  c.  of  Compound  No.  I.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  small,  or  3  c.  c.,  pipette,  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  sample  of  milk  is  taken.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  draw  the  acid  into  the  mouth.  While  there  are  no 
injurious  effects  attendant  upon  getting  the  acid  into  the  mouth, 
it  is  not  pleasant,  and  by  using  a  little  care  can  easily  be  avoided. 
After  the  addition  of  Compound  No.  I ,  fill  the  bottle  up  to  within 


FIG.  42. 


TRAY 


3CC   PIPETTE. 


ACCHSSOKIP.S    FOK    BRIMLING    PATENT    MlLK    TEST. 

Test-tube,  or  test-bottle: — Capacity,  33  c.  c.,  with  long  neck  accurately  graduated  so  that  each 
division  is  equivalent  to  one-tenth  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  butler  fat.  Tray  for  convenient 
cleaning  and  drying  of  test  bottles.  15  c.  c.  Pipette,  for  measuring  milk.  3  c.  c.  Pipette,  fur 
measuring  reagent.  Compass,  for  accurately  determining  the  reading  on  the  stem.  Graduate, 
for  measuring  and  handling  milk,  reagents,  etc.,  in  larger  quantities. 


an  inch  of  the  neck  with  Compound  No.  2  ;  shake  until  the  curd 
or  casein  is  entirely  dissolved  by  chemical  action.  Then  fill  the 
bottle  with  Compound  No.  2  to  the  o  mark.  Shake  again  and  place 
the  bottle  in  the  machine,  which  should  be  whirled  from  seventy- 
five  to  one  hundred  revolutions  of  the  crank,  consuming  in  time 
from  one  to  one  and  one-half  minutes.  The  pockets  should  at 
all  times,  before  whirling,  contain  the  test  bottles,  filled  with 
either  the  mixture  for  test  or  water.  This  is  to  preserve  the 
equilibrium  of  the  machine.  After  subjecting  the  tests  to  the 
centrifugal  process,  as  above  described,  the  butter  fat  will  he- 
shown  in  a  perfectly  clear  condition  in  the  neck  of  the  tube. 


BUTTEK — BUTTERMILK.  I  I/ 

In  case  the  oil  is  cloudy,  replace  the  test  tube  in  the  machine 
and  whirl  a  moment  longer. 

With  very  rich  samples  of  milk  or  cream,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  dilute  with  water,  one-half.  In  this  case  double  the 
result. 

Milk  Preservatives.  Milk  is  artifically  preserved  or  its  curdling 
and  souring  retarded  by  the  addition  of  borax,  boric  acid, 
salicylic  acid,  or  other  antiseptics,  some  being  sold,  separately  or 
in  combination,  under  trade  names,  such  as  "  preservoline,"  etc. 
In  order  to  detect  boric  acid,  the  milk  is  rendered  slightly  alka- 
line, evaporated  to  dryness  and  incinerated  ;  the  residue  is  dis- 
solved in  hydrochloric  acid,  filtered,  and  evaporated  to  dryness 
on  a  water  bath.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  again  added,  mixed  with 
tincture  of  turmeric,  when  a  vermilion  or  cherry-red  color  will 
develop  if  boric  acid  be  present.  In  order  to  detect  salicylic 
acid,  the  milk  is  coagulated  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  acid  mercuric  nitrate.  The  whey  is  then  filtered  off  and 
shaken  with  a  mixture  of  ether  and  petroleum  spirits,  equal 
parts.  This  mixture  takes  up  the  salicylic  acid  and  by  allowing 
the  solvent  to  evaporate  the  presence  of  the  acid  may  be 
demonstrated  by  the  addition  of  ferric  chlorid,  which  will  give 
a  purple  color. 

Coloring,  Among  the  coloring  matters  which  maybe  present 
in  milk  we  have  annato,  carotin,  turmeric,  Martius'  yellow,  and 
naphthol  yellow,  and  other  members  of  the  coal  tar  group. 
Martins'  yellow  is  poisonous, but  is  rarely  used.  Colorings  used 
for  milk  are  also  used  for  producing  that  rich  yellow  so  much 
desired  in  butter.  Milk  may  be  colored  by  the  growth  of 
colored  or  color-producing  bacteria.  All  coloring  in  milk, 
whether  introduced  by  the  dealer  or  infectious  in  origin, 
should  condemn  the  sample. 

Butter  and  Buttermilk.  Buffer  is  prepared  from  the  fat  of 
milk  by  allowing  acid  fermentation  to  go  on,  releasing  the 
fat  from  the  casein  emulsion,  and  then  by  churning  until  the  fat 
globules  run  together  or  coalesce  into  a  solid  mass,  which 
is  butter.  The  remaining  fluid  is  known  as  buttermilk. 

Buttermilk  is  nutritious,  and  to  many  a  palatable,  thirst- 
relieving  drink.  The  process  of  fermentation  has  partly  con- 
verted the  lactose  into  lactic  acid,  and  thus  altered,  the  coagu- 


IlS  FOOD. 

lating  property  becomes  almost  nil.     Pavy  gives  the  composition 
of  buttermilk  as  follows: — 

Water 88.0 

Nitrogenous  matter,      .    .        4.1 

Fatly  matter 0.7 

Lactine, 6.4 

Salts, 8 

The  digestibility  of  buttermilk  is  one  of  its  most  valuable 
properties,  which,  added  to  its  thirst-relieving  quality,  makes  it 
often  more  useful  as  a  food  than  fresh  milk  with  unaltered  casein. 

Butter.  After  removal  from  the  buttermilk  butter  is  thoroughly 
washed  in  order  to  remove  all  the  casein  ;  the  more  thorough 
the  washing  the  better  the  keeping  properties  of  the  butter. 
The  preservation  is  facilitated  by  the  addition  of  salt,  the  per- 
centage of  which  should  be  between  1.5  and  3  per  cent. 
Where  butter  is  to  be  utilized  or  sold  as  fresh,  no  salt  is 
added ;  where  salt  has  been  added,  the  butter  is  sold  as  salted 
butter.  The  composition  of  butter  as  given  by  Konig  is  as 
follows  : — 

Fat, • 87.0 

Casein, 05 

Milk  sugar, .05 

Water 11.7 

The  amount  of  water  in  butter  should  not  exceed  the  limits 
here  laid  down,  and  where  a  larger  amount  is  present  it  may  be 
inferred  that  it  is  worked  into  the  butter  in  order  to  increase  its 
weight;  thus  butter  may  be  made  to  take  up  20  per  cent,  in  the 
fresh  condition  and  from  25  to  28  per  cent,  when  salted.  The 
presence  of  such  a  percentage  of  water  in  butter  maybe  detected 
by  melting  the  butter  in  a  long  glass  tube,  when  the  water  will 
lie  at  the  bottom.  A  very  small  percentage  of  water  is  suspi- 
cious, as  indicating  the  admixture  of  foreign  fat.  The  percentage 
of  casein  in  the  butter  varies  within  very  narrow  limits  normally. 
Artificial  methods  are,  however,  introduced  to  increase  the  butter 
yield  from  milk  by  securing  a  coagulation  of  a  part  of  the  casein 
and  retaining  this  with  the  fat.  What  is  known  as  "  black  pep- 
sin," a  mixture  consisting  of  rennet,  salt,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  is  added  to  the  cream  before  churning,  caus- 
ing a  certain  amount  of  casein  to  separate  and  be  collected  with 


BUTTER    SUBSTITUTES.  I  1 9 

the  butter,  thus  increasing  the  weight  of  the  butter  mass  and  mak- 
ing the  milk  yield  a  heavier  percentage.  As  the  butter  fat  is  also 
partly  emulsified,  an  additional  weight  of  water  is  secured, thereby 
increasing  the  weight  yield.  Casein  maybe  detected  by  melting 
the  butter  in  a  tall  test  tube  as  for  the  determination  of  water,  or  if 
the  fat  be  extracted  from  the  butter  by  means  of  ether  the  casein 
will  be  found  at  the  bottom.  It  should  never  exceed  .75  per 
cent.  The  casein  appears  to  act  in  its  decomposition  as  a  fer- 
ment which  liberates  the  fatty  acids,  and  hence  butter  rich  in 
casein  keeps  poorly.  It  is  probable  that  casein  decomposes 
more  rapidly  by  reason  of  the  readiness  with  which  bacterial 
growth  is  sustained  upon  it. 

Butter  fat  consists  of  volatile  and  non-volatile  fatty  acids,  com- 
bined with  glycerin.  The  volatile  acids  are  butyric,  caproic, 
capric,  and  caprylic.  The  non-volatile  acids  are  stearic,  palmitic, 
and  oleic.  The  butter  fats  vary  in  quantity  between  85  and  90 
per  cent. 

The  mixing  of  old  and  fresh  butter,  the  sugaring  and  over- 
salting  of  butter, are  "tricks  of  the  trade;"  the  sugar  is  some- 
times used  as  a  preservative,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  the  salt, 
preferably  the  latter. 

The  adulterations  of  butter  not  already  considered  consist  for 
the  most  part  in  the  addition  or  substitution  of  foreign  fats. 
Thus  the  fats  of  beef,  mutton,  and  pork  maybe  worked  up  into 
butter  or  butter  substitutes,  or  some  of  the  vegetable  oils  may 
be  added.  These  substitutes  are  known  under  various  names, 
as  butterine,  margarine,  oleo,  oleomargarine,  "  oleo  mixtures," 
and  "  straight  oleos." 

Butter  Substitutes.  There  has  been  bitter  controversy  over 
the  wholesomeness  of  these  members  of  the  so-called  made 
foods.  It  seems  probable  that  the  entire  cavil  may  be  settled  by 
a  consideration  of  three  factors  :  1st.  The  purity  of  the  materials 
out  of  which  the  substitute  is  manufactured.  2d.  The  method 
of  manufacture.  3d.  The  sale  of  the  product  as  a  substitute 
and  not  as  genuine  butter.  The  opposition  has  not  been  fair. 
It  has  been  largely  the  producers  of  butter  who  have  antagon- 
ized the  production  of  substitutes  which  threatened  to  drive  the 
pure  article  out  of  the  market,  and  thus  rob  them  of  an  honest 
living.  Tax  was  heaped  upon  all  "  oleos  ;"  regulations,  good, 


I2O  FOOD. 

bad,  indifferent,  and  unnecessary,  were  brought  forward,  not,  as 
was  claimed,  to  protect  the  consumer,  but,  in  reality,  to  pro- 
tect the  butter  producer.  Had  sanitary  authorities  dared,  as  they 
should  Ions  a<jo  have  done,  to  place  such  much-needed  restric- 

O          O  1 

tions  upon  the  genuine  article,  the  very  leaders  in  the  crusade 
against  substitutes  would  have  been  the  loudest  objectors.  Now 
that  the  heat  of  the  controversy  is  over  and  experience  has  dis- 
proven  many  claims  advanced  for  or  against  and  developed  only 
facts,  the  cooler  heads  seem  to  view  the  proposed  substitutes  as 
real  advances,  in  that  they  are  just  what  Professor  Atwater 
claimed  for  them  as  long  ago  as  1886: — 

"  i.  The  common  kinds  of  imitation  butter,  oleomargarine, 
butterine,  etc.,  when  properly  made,  agree  very  closely  in 
chemical  composition,  digestibility,  and  nutritive  value  with  but- 
ter from  cow's  milk. 

"  2.  In  fulfilling  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  food, 
namely,  that  of  supplying  the  body  with  heat  and  muscular 
energy,  they,  with  butter,  excel  in  efficiency  all,  or  nearly  all,  our 
other  common  food  materials. 

"  3.  Considering  the  low  cost  at  which  they  can  be  produced, 
as  well  as  their  palatability  and  nutritive  value,  they  form  a  food 
product  of  very  great  economical  importance,  and  one  which  is 
calculated  to  greatly  benefit  a  large  class  of  our  population 
whose  limited  incomes  make  good  dairy  butter  a  luxury. 

"  4.  Imitation  butter,  like  many  other  manufactured  food 
materials,  is  liable  (but  in  actual  commerce  has  been  found  not 
to  be  so)  to  be  rendered  unwholesome  by  improper  materials  and 
methods  of  manufacture.  It  is  also  open  to  the  especial  objec- 
tion that  it  is  largely  sold  as  genuine  butter.  The  interests  of 
the  public,  therefore,  demand  that  it  should  be  subjected  to  com- 
petent official  inspection,  and  that  it  should  be  sold  for  what  it 
is, and  not  as  genuine  butter." 

Examination  of  Butter.  The  amount  of  water  should  be 
estimated ;  the  amount  of  casein  detected  as  already  given  ; 
excessive  salting  will  be  discernible  by  the  taste ;  the  butter 
should  have  only  that  pleasant  odor  characteristic  of  butter  ;  it 
should  not  be  rancid,  and  when  "worked"  up  with  water  should 
yield  no  color.  Hutter  is  supposed  to  have  been  adulterated 
with  starch,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  in  this  country  such  is 


ESTIMATION    OF    VOLATILE    ACIDS.  121 

ever  the  case  ;  but  should  starch  be  introduced  it  can  readily  be 
detected  by  iodin.  The  identification  of  good  butter  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  percentage  and  quality  of  the  fat  present,  and 
although  a  large  number  of  tests  have  been  originated  for  the  de- 
tection of  extraneous  fats,  but  few  of  them  have  any  merit,  and 
probably  only  one  is  deserving  of  confidence.  The  microscopic 
examination,  including  the  polariscope,  is  unreliable.  The  deter- 
mination of  the  melting  point, solidifying  point,  the  sinking  point, 
and  the  specific  gravity  do  not  seem  to  promise  very  gratifying 
results.  For  the  estimation  of  volatile  acids  or  fatty  acids,  the 
following  is  recommended  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agri- 
cultural Chemists  : — 

Estimation  of  Volatile  Acids. 

REAGENTS. 

Solution  of  Caustic  Soda.  i.  100  grams  of  NaOH  dissolved  in 
IOO  c.c.  of  pure  water.  The  caustic  soda  should  be  as  free  as 
possible  from  carbonates  and  be  preserved  from  contact  with  the 
air. 

2.  Alcohol,  of  about  95  per  cent.,  redistilled  with  caustic  soda. 

3.  Solution   of  sulphuric  acid   containing  25  c.c.  of  strongest 
H.;SO4  in  1000  c.c.  of  water. 

4.  An  accurately  standardized  approximately  decinormal  solu- 
tion of  barium  hydrate. 

5.  Alcoholic  solution  of  phenol-phthalein. 

APPARATUS. 

1.  Saponification  flasks   of  hard,  well   annealed  glass,  capable 
of  resisting  the  tension  of  alcohol  vapor  at  100°  C.     Each  flask 
should   have  from   250  to   300  c.c.  capacity.     Instead  of  such  a 
flask,  an  Krlenmeyer  flask  of  the  same  capacity  fitted  with  a  long 
glass  tube  or  reflux  condenser  may  be  used. 

2.  A  pipette  graduated  to  deliver  to  40  c.c. 

3.  Distilling  apparatus. 

4.  An  accurately  calibrated   burette    reading   to   tenths   of  a 
cubic  centimeter. 

Wcigliing  the   Fat.     The  butter  or  fat  to  be  examined   should 

be  melted  and  kept  in  a  dry,  warm  place  at  about  60°  C.  for  two 

or  three  hours,  until  the  moisture  and  curd  have  entirely  settled 

out.     The  clean  supernatant  fat  is  poured  off  and  filtered  through 

8 


122  FOOD. 

a  dry  filter  paper  in  a  jacketed  funnel  containing  boiling 
water,  to  remove  all  foreign  matter  and  any  traces  of  moisture. 
Should  the  filtered  fat  in  a  fused  state  not  be  perfectly  clear,  the 
treatment  above  mentioned  must  be  repeated. 

The  saponification  flasks  are  prepared  by  having  them  thor- 
oughly washed  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  wiped  perfectly 
dry  on  the  outside,  and  heated  for  one  hour  to  100°  C.  The 
flasks  should  then  be  placed  in  a  tray  by  the  side  of  the  balance 
and  covered  with  a  silk  handkerchief  within  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  of  the  time  they  are  weighed.  The  weight  of  each  flask- 
is  determined  accurately,  using  a  flask  for  a  counterpoise,  or 
dispensing  with  the  same,  as  may  be  convenient.  The  weight  of 
the  flask  having  been  accurately  detei mined,  they  are  charged 
with  the  melted  fat  in  the  following  way  : — 

A  pipette  with  a  long  stem  marked  to  deliver  5.75  c.c.  is 
warmed  to  a  temperature  of  about  50°  C.  The  fat,  having  been 
poured  back  and  forth  once  or  twice  into  a  dry  beaker  in  order 
to  thoroughly  mix  it,  is  taken  up  in  a  pipette,  the  noz/.le  of  the 
pipette  carried  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  having  been  pre- 
viously wiped  to  remove  any  adhering  fat.  The  5.75  c.c.  of  fat 
are  allowed  to  flow  into  the  flask,  and  the  pipette  is  removed. 
After  the  flasks  have  been  charged  in  this  way,  they  should  be 
re-covered  with  the  silk  handkerchief  and  allowed  to  stand  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes,  when  they  are  again  weighed.* 

Saponification.  10  c.c.  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  redistilled  from 
caustic  soda  are  added  to  the  fat  in  the  flask,  and  then  2  c.c.  of 
the  concentrated  soda  solution  ;  a  soft  cork  stopper  is  now  in- 
serted in  the  flask  and  tied  down  with  a  piece  of  twine.  The 
saponification  is  then  completed  by  placing  the  flask  upon  the 


*  licforc  weighing  the  flasks  any  desiccating  material  used  in  the  balance  should  be 
removed.  If  round  bottom  flasks  are  employed,  a  special  form  of  holder  must  be 
used.  This  is  made  on  the  principle  of  a  te>t-tube  lack,  the  lower  board  of  the  tray 
being  perforated  so  as  to  receive  the  round  bottom  of  the  flask,  and  being  protected 
by  lug->,  so  that  on  Icing  placed  on  the  table  the  bottoms  of  the  flasks  do  not  touch 
the  table. 


\\Yightof  counter]  oised  llask  No.  5,        22.5904 

\\Yightof  counterpoised  flask  No.  3    •    fat 27.6754 

Weight  of   fat, 5-oSjo 


ESTIMATION    OF    VOLATILE    ACIDS.  123 

water  or  steam  bath.  The  flask  during  the  saponification,  which 
should  last  one  hour,  should  be  gently  rotated  from  time  to  time, 
being  careful  not  to  project  the  soap  for  any  distance  up  the  side 
of  the  flask.  At  the  end  of  an  hour,  the  flask,  after  having 
been  cooled  to  near  the  room  temperature,  is  opened. 

Removal  of  Alcohol.  The  stoppers  having  been  laid  loosely 
in  the  mouth  of  the  flask,  the  alcohol  is  removed  by  dipping  the 
flask  into  a  steam  bath.  The  steam  should  cover  the  whole  of 
the  flask  except  the  neck.  After  the  alcohol  is  nearly  removed, 
frothing  may  be  noticed  in  the  soap,  and  to  avoid  any  loss  from 
this  cause,  or  any  creeping  of  the  soap  up  the  sides  of  the  flask, 
it  should  be  removed  from  the  bath  and  shaken  to  and  fro  until 
the  frothing  disappears.  The  last  traces  of  alcohol  vapor  should 
be  removed  from  the  flask  by  waving  it  briskly,  mouth  down,  to 
and  fro.  Complete  removal  of  the  alcohol  with  the  precautions 
above  noted  should  take  about  forty-five  minutes. 

Dissolving  tlic  Soap.  After  the  removal  of  the  alcohol  the 
soap  should  be  dissolved  by  adding  100  c.c.  of  recently  boiled 
distilled  water,  warming  on  the  steam  bath  with  occasional 
shaking,  until  solution  of  the  soap  is  complete. 

Setting  Free  of  Fatty  Acids.  When  the  soap  solution  has 
cooled  to  about  60  or  70°  C.  the  fatty  acids  are  separated  by 
adding  40  c.c.  of  the  dilute  sulphuric  acid  solution  mentioned 
above. 

Melting  f/ic  Fatty  Acid  Emulsion.  The  flask  should  now  be 
re-stoppered  as  in  the  first  instance,  and  the  fatty  acid  emulsion 
melted  by  placing  the  flask  on  the  steam  bath.  According  to 
the  nature  of  the  fat  examined,  the  time  required  for  the  fusion  of 
the  fatty  acid  emulsion  may  vary  from  a  few  minutes  to  several 
hours. 

Distillation.  After  the  fatty  acids  are  completely  melted, 
which  can  be  determined  by  their  forming  a  transparent  oily 
layer  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  flask  is  cooled  to  the  room 
temperature,  and  a  few  pieces  of  pumice  stone  added.  The 
pumice  stone  is  prepared  by  throwing  it,  at  a  white  heat,  into 
distilled  water,  and  keeping  it  under  the  water  until  used.  The 
flask  is  now  connected  with  a  condenser,  slowly  heated  with  a 
naked  flame  until  ebullition  begins,  and  then  the  distillation 
continued  bv  regulating  the  flame  in  such  a  wav  as  to  collect 


124  FOOD. 

1 10  c.c.  of  the  distillate  in,  as  nearly  as  possible,  thirty  minutes. 
The  distillate  should  be  received  into  a  flask  accurately  graduated 
at  i  10  c.c. 

Titration  of  Volatile  Acids.  The  no  c.c.  of  distillate,  after  a 
thorough  mixing,  is  filtered  through  perfectly  dry  filter  paper, 
and  collected  in  a  flask  graduated  at  100  c.c.  The  100  c.c.  of  the 
filtered  distillate  is  poured  into  a  beaker  holding  from  200  to 
250  c.c.,  0.5  c.c.  phenol-phthalein  solution  added,  and  a  decinormal 
barium  hydrate  run  in  until  a  red  color  is  produced.  The  con- 
tents of  the  beaker  are  then  returned  to  the  measuring  flask  to 
remove  any  acid  remaining  therein,  poured  again  into  the 
beaker,  and  the  titration  continued  until  the  red  color  produced 
remains  apparently  unchanged  for  two  or  three  minutes. 

Alternate  Method  of  Determining  Volatile  Acids.  Sa- 
ponification  'Without  the  Use  of  Alcohol.  To  avoid  the  dan- 
ger of  loss  from  the  formation  of  ethers  and  the  trouble  of 
removing  the  alcohol  after  saponification,  the  fat  may  be  saponi- 
fied with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  in  a  closed  flask  without 
alcohol.  The  operation  is  carried  on  exactly  as  indicated  above 
for  saponification  in  a  closed  flask,  using  caustic  potash  solution 
instead  of  soda,  and  omitting  the  operation  for  volatilizing  the 
alcohol.  The  caustic  potash  is  prepared  as  follows:  Dissolve 
IOO  grs.  of  the  purest  potassium  hydrate  in  58  grs.  of  hot  dis- 
tilled water.  Allow  to  cool  in  a  stoppered  vessel,  decant  the 
clear  caustic  solution,  which  is  poured  on  the  fat  after  it  has 
solidified  in  the  flask.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  none  of 
the  fat  is  allowed  to  rise  on  the  sides  of  the  saponifying  flask  to 
a  point  where  it  cannot  be  reached  by  an  alkali.  During  the 
process  of  saponification,  the  flask  can  only  be  very  gently 
rotated,  in  order  to  avoid  the  difficulty  mentioned.  This  pro- 
cess is  not  recommended  in  any  except  a  closed  flask  with  round 
bottom.  In  the  subsequent  solution  of  the  soap,  use  only  80 
c.c.  of  distilled  water,  and  in  setting  free  the  fatty  acids,  use  60 
c.c.  of  the  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  In  other  respects  the  distilla- 
tion is  conducted  as  described.  Potash  is  used  instead  of  soda, 
so  as  to  form  a  softer  soap  and  thus  allow  a  more  perfect  saponi- 
fication. 

The   saponification    may  also  be  conducted   as  follows  :    The 
alkali  and  fat  in   the   niched   state  are   shaken  vigorously  in  the 


ESTIMATION    OF    VOLATILE    ACIDS.  125 

• 

saponification  flask  until  a  complete  emulsion  is  secured.  The 
rest  of  the  operation  is  then  conducted  as  above. 

Leffmann  and  Beam  recommend  the  following  for  saponifica- 
tion : — 

The  saponification  is  effected  by  a  mixture  prepared  by  adding 
25  c. c.  of  a  clear  50  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  hydroxid  to 
125  c.  c.  of  pure  glycerol,  e.g.,  Merck's  redistilled,  and  boiling 
from  15  to  20  minutes,  to  evaporate  the  greater  portion  of  the 
water. 

About  five  grams  of  the  clear  fat  arc  weighed  out  in  a  flask 
in  the  usual  manner,  10  c.  c.  of  the  alkali-glyccrol  added,  and 
the  flask  heated  over  a  Bunsen  burner.  The  mixture  may  foam 
somewhat;  this  maybe  controlled  and  the  operation  hastened 
by  shaking  the  flask.  When  all  the  water  has  been  driven  off, 
the  mixture  will  cease  to  boil,  and  if  the  heat  and  agitation  be  con- 
tinued for  a  few  moments  complete  saponification  will  be  effected, 
the  mixture  becoming  perfectly  clear.  The  whole  operation, 
exclusive  of  weighing  the  fat,  will  require  less  than  five  minutes. 
The  flask  is  then  withdrawn  from  the  heat,  and  the  soap  dissolved 
in  90  c.  c.  of  water.  The  first  portions  of  the  water  should  be 
added  drop  by  drop,  and  the  flask  shaken  between  each  addition 
in  order  to  avoid  foaming.  When  the  soap  is  dissolved,  50  c.  c. 
of  diluted  sulphuric  acid — 25  c.  c.  of  the  concentrated  acid  to 
the  liter — are  added,  a  piece  of  pumice  stone  dropped  in,  and  the 
distillation  conducted  as  usual  until  100  c.  c.  of  distillate  are 
collected. 

Blank  experiments  have  given  a  distillate  requiring  from  0.2 
to  0.3  of  decinormal  alkali. 

For  the  identification  of"  straight  oleos  "  Leffmann  and  Beam 
have  found  it  sufficient  to  measure  out  carefully  3  c.  c.  of  the 
clear,  melted  fat,  and  use  one-half  the  quantity  of  the  reagents. 

The  alkali-glycerol  is  quite  viscid  when  cold.  It  should  be 
kept  in  a  flask  .closed  with  a  rubber  stopper  and  heated  when 
the  measured  portion  is  to  be  taken. 

The  amount  of  decinormal  alkali  necessary  for  neutralization 
will  be  20  c.  c.  or  over  for  each  five  gnus,  of  butter.  No  other 
fat  contains  anything  like  the  percentage  of  volatile  acids.  The 
amount  of  adulteration  or  the  presence  of  this  iat  will  be  sus- 
pected where  the  quantity  of  decinormal  solution  is  between  10 


126  FOOD. 

and  20  c.  c. ;  where  the  quantity  required  is  below  10  c.  c.  there 
can  be  but  a  slight  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  butter.  Of  the 
following  fats  the  appended  quantities  of  decinormal  solution 
required  for  titration  shows  how  small  is  the  amount  of  volatile 
acids  present  in  each  five  grams  : — 

Lard, 0.4 

Rape  oil 0.5 

Kidney  fat,      .    .  0.5 

Olive  oil, 0.6 

Sesame  oil,  ...  0.7 

Oleomargarine, 1.4  to  2.6 

Cocoanut  oil, 7.4 

Cheese.  Cheese  is  prepared  from  milk  by  the  coagulation  of 
casein.  It  may  be  made  from  skimmed  milk,  partly  skimmed  milk, 
milk  containing  a  normal  percentage  of  cream,  and  occasionally, 
though  rarely,  from  milk  containing  an  excess  of  cream.  Good 
cheese  is  rich  in  nutritive  properties.  When  digestible  an  abund- 
ance of  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  material  maybe  obtained 
from  a  relatively  small  quantity.  Parkes  states  that  about  one- 
half  pound  contains  as  much  nitrogenous  substance  as  one  pound 
of  meat,  and  one-third  of  a  pound  as  much  fat  as  a  pound  of  meat. 
The  composition  of  cheese  as  given  by  Yeo  from  a  proximate 
analysis  is  as  follows  : — 

Water, 36.8 

Albuminates,   .        ....                 .    .        ...  33.5 

I-'ats ...  24.3 

Salts, 54 

Quality  and  Adulteration.  It  is  presumed  that  the  quality  of 
cheese  can  be  estimated  by  the  taste  ;  this  is  not,  however,  prob- 
able. Decomposition  may  be  recognized  by  the  odor  and  not 
infrequently  by  the  parasites  present.  Among  the  fungi  which 
will  be  found  present  in  cheese  are  the  aspergillus  glaucus  and 
other  forms  of  aspergillus,  also  the  sporendoncma  casei  or  red 
mold.  The  acarus  domesticus,  or  cheese  mite,  is  the  only 
animal  parasite  which  commonly  inhabits  decomposing  cheese. 
Occasionally  preservatives  are  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  cheese, 
and  it  is  stated  that  copper  and  arsenious  acids  are  applied  to 
preserve  the  rind.  It  is  not,  however,  believed  that  such  applica- 
tions are  common.  They  may  be  detected  by  the  ordinary 


EXAMINATION    OF    EGGS.  I  2J 

chemical  methods.  Tyrotoxicon  has  been  found  in  cheese  and 
probably  represents  past  decomposition,  either  in  the  milk  or 
casein,  or  in  the  cheese  during  the  ripening  process.  State- 
ment is  made  that  cheese  is  sometimes  prepared  from  oleomar- 
garin  and  lard,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  such  is  ever  the  case. 
Cheese  may  be  adulterated  by  starch,  the  test  for  which  is  iodin. 
Eggs.  The  egg  of  the  ordinary  barn-yard  fowl  weighs  from 
six  to  eight  hundred  grains  with  a  mean  average  near  the  latter. 
The  eggs  of  the  duck  and  goose  weigh  from  two  to  four  times 
as  much  as  the  hen's  egg.  For  every  hundred  grains  that  an 
egg  weighs,  Parkes  estimates  that  10  grains  will  be  shell,  67.2 
water,  22.8  albuminate  and  fat.  Yeo  quotes  Landois  as  giving 
the  following  for  the  comparative  analysis  of  the  white  and 
yolk  :— 

White  of  ESS.  yolk  of  J-:?g. 

Water, 84.8  51.5 

Albuminates,      12.0  15.0 

Fats,  etc., 2.0  30.0 

Mineral  matter, 1.2  1.4 

Pigment   extractives, 2.1 

An  approximate  calculation  of  solids  ma}'  be  made  by  con- 
sidering each  ounce,  gross,  as  representing  100  grains  of  solids. 

Raw  and  lightly  cooked  eggs  digest  with  but  little  difficulty, 
while  the  dense  and  harder  cooked  yield  slowly  to  the  digestive 
juices.  It  has  been  said  that  there  are  "  more  than  five  hundred 
ways  "  in  which  eggs  may  be  prepared  as  food. 

The  preservation  of  eggs  is  accomplished  by  excluding  air, 
which  normally  may  penetrate  the  porous  shell.  They  may  be 
packed  in  sawdust  or  salt,  or  given  a  light  coating  of  some  im- 
permeable wax  or  gum,  as  beeswax  in  warm  olive  oil,  '{  of  the 
former  to  ^  of  the  latter.  Kggs  may  be  pickled  by  boiling 
hard,  removing  the  shell, and  covering  with  vinegar. 

In  selecting  eggs,  the  shell  should  be  clean,  that  is,  not  dis- 
colored ;  no  sound  should  be  produced  by  shaking;  the  egg 
should  be  transparent,  more  particularly  at  the  center;  the  trans- 
parency can  best  be  judged  by  placing  a  candle  behind  the  egg  I 
if  one  ounce  of  salt  be  dissolved  in  ten  of  water,  good  eggs  will 
sink,  poor  ones  float,  while  eggs  advanced  in  decomposition  will 
float  in  pure  water. 


128  FOOD. 

Meat.  The  advantages  of  meat  as  a  food  are  manifold,  its 
comparative  cheapness,  the  large  proportion  of  carbon  and 
nitrogen  which  it  contains,  and  the  fact  that  man  is  largely, 
though  not  exclusively,  a  carnivorous  animal.  Aside  from  the 
two  essential  elements,  carbon  and  nitrogen,  we  have  meat-sup- 
plying organic  compounds  demanded  by  the  organisms  for  the 
maintenance  of  nutrition  ;  to  these  we  have  added  an  abundance 
of  inorganic  salts  and  a  varying  quantity  of  water.  The  objec- 
tions to  meat  lie  mostly  in  the  fact  that  the  proper  proportion 
of  carbon  and  nitrogen  is  not  maintained  in  an  exclusive  meat 
diet.  Meat  affords  three  parts  of  carbon  to  one  of  nitrogen,  and 
therefore  gives  us  an  oversupply  of  nitrogenous  material  ;  hence 
the  exclusive  use  of  meat  as  a  diet  undoubtedly  leads  to  the 
development  of  morbid  conditions,  usually  associated  with  the 
faulty  metabolism  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  hence  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained  by  combining  the  excess  of  car- 
bon in  vegetable  products  with  the  high  percentage  of  nitrogen 
in  animal  diet.  This  gives  a  happy  medium  in  which  we  reach 
approximately  the  relative  quantities,  15  of  carbon  to  I  of 
nitrogen.  Another  disadvantage  in  depending  exclusively  upon 
a  meat  diet — indeed,  a  disadvantage  to  be  considered  at  all  times 
— is  the  liability  to  the  transmission  of  disease  direct  from  the 
animal  to  man.  This  is  no  longer  a  matter  for  discussion  ; 
scientific  and  authoritative  evidence  has  accumulated  to  prove 
beyond  the  possibility  of  a  doubt  that  innumerable  diseases  may 
be  communicated  to  man  through  the  medium  of  meat. 

The  forms  in  which  meat  maybe  used  are  fresh  or  preserved, 
raw  or  cooked.  Fresh  meat  is  to  be  commended  as  superior  to 
any  form  of  preserved  meat,  and  cooked  meat  is  always  to  be 
preferred.  The  eating  of  raw  meat  invariably  leads,  sooner  or 
later,  to  the  development  of  some  form  of  transmissible  disease. 
Aside  from  the  dangers  arising  from  improper,  faulty,  or  no  cook- 
ing, we  have  the  fact  that  the  method  of  cooking  alters  more  or 
less  the  digestibility  of  the  food.  Thus  Heaumont  has  pointed 
out  that  raw  pork  will  digest  in  three  hours,  boiled  pork  in  four 
and  one-half  hours,  and  roasted  pork  in  five  and  one-half  hours. 

Approximately  all  meats  afford  a  very  closely  relative  compo- 
sition, modified  more  or  less  by  the  fatness  of  the  animal  from 
which  meat  is  selected,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  following  tables. 


BEEF — VEAL MUTTON — POKK.  I  2(J 

Beef  consists  of  the  meat  from  cattle,  and  the  composition  as 
given  by  Yeo  is  :  — 

Lean  fie,'/.  J-,,t  AV,/. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 19.3  14.8 

J-'at, 3.6  29.4 

Salines, 5.1  4.4 

Water 72.7  51.0 

Veal  consists  of  the  meat  of  the  calf.  It  is  more  difficult  of 
digestion  than  beef,  although  it  contains  less  fibrous  tissue  and 
fatty  matter.  The  age  is  a  most  important  matter.  The  best 
veal  is  from  six  to  ten  weeks  of  age,  although  it  may  be  used 
for  food  as  early  as  the  third  week  ;  prior  to  that  time  it  is  known 
as  "  monkey  "  veal,  and  in  many  cities  its  sale  is  prohibited  by 
law  or  Board  of  Health  regulations. 

The  composition  of  veal  as  given  by  Yeo  is  : — 

Water.         Nitrogenous  Matter.       J-'.it. 

Lean  veal, 78.82  '9-7^  o.cS2 

Fat  veal,      72-3i  18.88  7.41 

Loin 76.25  15.12  7.12 

Ribs, 72.66  20.57  5.12 

Shoulder, 76.57  18.10  3.62 

Leg, 70.30  18.87  9-25 

Mutton  is  the  flesh  of  the  sheep  ;  it  is  rich  in  fat,  is  easily  di- 
gested, and  readily  assimilated.  The  proximate  food  principles 
as  found  in  mutton  are  : — 

ll'ater.  Albnviinates.  Fat. 

Moderately  fat, 75-99  18.11  5.77 

Very  fat, 47-91  14.80  36.39 

Hind  quarter, 4!-97  '4-39  43-47 

Breast, 41.39  15.45  42.07 

Shoulder, 60.38  14-57  23.62 

Pork  consists  of  the  meat  of  the  hog.  It  is  proportionately 
richer  in  fats  and  poorer  in  albuminates  than  either  mutton,  veal, 
or  beef.  It  is,  hence,  more  generously  used  as  a  diet  by  the  work- 
ing class,  partly  by  reason  of  its  relative  cheapness  but  largely 
on  account  of  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  cooked  with  vege- 
tables, affording  an  ideal  mixed  diet.  The  composition  as  given 
by  Yeo  is  as  follows  : — 

Fat.  Lean. 

Water, 47-4°  72-4° 

Albuminates,      14-54  19-91 

Fat, 37.34  6.Si 


130  FOOD. 

Meat  Inspection.  In  consequence  of  the  large  amount  of 
meat  consumed,  the  health  of  the  public  is  more  or  less  in- 
fluenced by  the  character  of  the  supply.  It  is  therefore  desir- 
able that  the  meat  offered  for  sale  should  be  of  such  a  quality 
as  to  preclude  injurious  effects  to  the  consumer. 

There  have  been  many  cases  of  poisoning,  often  in  an 
epidemic  form,  directly  attributable  to  the  consumption  of 
diseased  meat.  As  a  hygienic  measure  and  with  a  view  to 
prevent  future  occurrences  of  such  outbreaks,  our  legislators 
have  enacted  laws  prohibiting  the  sale,  for  food,  of  such  meat 
as  may  deleteriously  affect  health  ;  and  they  have  provided  that 
there  shall  be  appointed,  by  the  Government,  men  whose  duty  it 
is  to  inspect  meat  and  enforce  the  requirements  of  law.  In 
Europe,  and  especially  in  Berlin,  meats  are  subjected  to  the 
closest  scrutiny,  but  in  this  country  the  corps  of  inspectors  is 
not  sufficiently  large  to  permit  a  thorough  examination  of  all 
the  meats  exposed  for  sale  in  our  markets.  Many  unscrupulous 
individuals,  in  their  wild  endeavors  to  accumulate  wealth, 
taking  advantage  of  the  fewness  of  inspectors,  do  not  hesitate 
to  sell  meats  prohibited  by  law,  if  it  is  thought  that  they  can 
possibly  avoid  detection. 

Meat  should  be  inspected  either  just  before  or  shortly  after 
slaughtering. 

Inspection  of  tJic  Living  Animal.  The  living  animal  should 
be  inspected  within  twenty-four  hours  preceding  the  killing,  and 
the  inspector  should  see  that  the  animal  is,  ist,  ivcl!  grcni.'ii  ;  2cl, 
well  nourished ;  30!,  tliat  it  is  of  proper  age,  and  4th,  tJiat  it  lias 
tlic  appearance  of  licaltli. 

Si.:: i'  ami  \Vciglit.  An  ox  should  weigh  not  less  than  55olbs. 
av.  ;  the  mean  weight  about  770  Ibs.  av. 

A  cow  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  Ibs.  av. ;  the  mean 
weight  about  730  Ibs.  av. 

A  heifer  should  weigh  not  less  than  300  Ibs.  av.  ;  the  mean 
weight  about  360  Ibs.  av. 

A  full-grown  sheep  will  usually  weigh  from  60  Ibs.  to  go  Ibs. 

A  full-grown  pig  will  usually  weigh  from   100  Ibs.  to  200  Ibs. 

To  determine  the  weight  of  cattle,  Notter  recommends  "to 
measure  the  trunk  just  in  front  of  the  scapula,'  to  the  root  of  the 
tail  and  the  girth  or  circumference  just  behind  the  scapula:  ; 


MEAT    INSPECTION — LIVING    ANIMAL.  13! 

then  multiply  the  square  of  girth  by  0.08  and  the  product  by 
the  length,  the  dimensions  in  cubic  feet  are  obtained;  each  cubic 
foot  is  supposed  to  weigh  42  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  The  formula  is 
(C2  X  .08)  X  L  X  42;  or  %  (C-  X  5!.).  The  result  in  cither 
case  gives  the  weight  in  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  In  very  fat  cattle  the 
weight  may  be  5  per  cent,  more,  and  in  very  lean  5  per  cent, 
less  than  actual  weight  found  by  this  rule." 

Ag£-  Cattle  should  be  from  three  to  eight  years  old.  The 
age  is  determined  by  examination  of  the  teeth. 

Temporary  teeth  : — 

At  birth,  temporary  teeth  partially  through. 

At  20  days,  temporary  incisors  all  through. 

At  30  days,  temporary  molars  all  through. 

At  6  months,  temporary  teeth  are  grown  large  enough  to 
touch  each  other. 

At  20  months,  temporary  incisors,  central  pair,  fall  out  and 
permanent  appear. 

At  27  months,  temporary  incisors,  second  pair,  fall  out  and 
permanent  appear. 

At  30  months,  temporary  molars,  first  and  second  pair,  fall  and 
permanent  appear. 

At  30  months  to  three  years,  temporary  molars,  third  pair,  fall 
and  permanent  appear. 

At  33  months  to  3  years,  temporary  incisors,  third  and  fourth 
pair,  fall  and  permanent  appear. 

At  5  to  6  years,  development  completed  and  border  of  incisors 
little  below  grinders. 

At  6  years,  first  grinders  begin  to  wear  and  are  level  with  the 
incisors. 

At  8  years,  the  wear  of  the  first  grinders  is  very  apparent. 

At  10  years,  used  surface  of  the  teeth  bear  a  square  mark,  sur- 
rounded by  a  white  line. 

At  12  years,  used  surface  of  teeth  bear  a  square  mark  more 
pronounced. 

At  12  to  14  years,  this  mark  becoming  rounded. 

The  rings  on  the  horns  are  sometimes  taken  as  a  guide  to  de- 
termine the  age,  but  they  are  very  unreliable. 

In  sheep  :— 

At  i  week,  temporary  teeth  begin  to  appear. 


132  FOOD. 

At  3  months,  fill  the  mouth. 

At  15  to  1 8  months,  fall. 

At  3  months,  first  permanent  grinders  appear. 

At  20  to  27  months,  fifth  permanent  grinders  appear. 

As  a  rule,  two  broad  teeth  appear  every  year. 

Sheep  should  always  have  clean, even  teeth. 

The  age  of  a  pig  cannot  be  told  after  three  years. 

Temporary  teeth  complete  at  3  to  4  months. 

Premolars  appear  at  6  months. 

Tusks  and  post-incisors  appear  at  6  to  10  months. 

Remaining  post-incisors  at  I  to  2  years. 

Four  permanent  molars  appear  at  6  months. 

Five  permanent  molars  appear  at  10  months. 

Six  permanent  molars  appear  at  18  months. 

Nourisliuicnt.  A  certain  quantity  of  fat  is  a  requisite  in  well- 
conditioned  animals.  The  presence  and  quality  of  the  fat  may 
best  be  discovered  over  the  false  ribs  or  ischial  tuberosities  and 
over  the  rectus  abdominalis.  The  flesh  should  feel  firm  and 
elastic  and  the  skin  supple. 

Health.  Health  is  evinced  by  the  ease  of  movement,  a  quick, 
bright  eye ;  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  should  be  red  and 
moist,  the  tongue  not  protruded,  respiration  regular  and  easy, 
the  expired  air  without  odor,  excreta  natural  in  appearance. 

The  diseases  to  guard  against  are  : — 

Cattle  : — 

1.  Epidemic  pleuro-pneumonia. 

2.  Foot-and-mouth    disease    (murrain,    aphtha,    eczema,    epi- 
zootica). 

3.  Cattle  plague  (typhus  contagiosus,  steppedis,  rinderpest). 

4.  Anthrax. 

5.  Tuberculosis. 

6.  Actinomycosis. 

7.  Texas  fever. 

H.   Dropsical  affections. 

9.   Indigestion. 

Sheep  : — 

In  addition  to  the  above, sheep  should  be  inspected  for— 

1.  Hraxy. 

2.  Variola  ovina. 


MEAT    INSPECTION — PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.  133 

3.  Black  quarter  (Erysipelas  carbunculosis). 

4.  Phthisis  (Strongylus  filaria). 

5.  Fluke  disease  (Distoma  hepaticum). 

6.  Gid,  sturdy  or  turnsick  (Caenurus  cerebralis). 
Stt'tHi' : — 

1.  Anthrax. 

2.  Hog  cholera. 

3.  Measles  (Cysticercus  cellulosae). 

4.  Trichiniasis. 

Epidemic  Pleura-pneumonia.  This  is  an  acute  contagious,  dis- 
ease primarily  affecting  the  lungs  of  cattle.  It  is  due  to  a 
specific  poison,  probably  an  organism.  The  incubation  period 
is  from  one  to  two  months.  The  appearance  of  the  animal  is 
striking  ;  there  is  a  discharge  of  viscid  froth  from  the  mouth  and 
the  nostrils,  the  eyes  are  dull  and  sunken,  the  horns  cold,  the 
coat  rough,  and  the  animal  is  unable  to  stand  long. 

With  the  exception  of  a  slight  cough,  which  manifests  itself 
in  the  incipiency  of  this  dread  disease,  no  diagnostic  symptoms 
are  obvious.  The  animal  eats  heartily  and  digests  its  food;  it  is 
lively,  and  in  the  cow  the  milk  supply  is  undiminished. 

The  first  symptoms  to  evince  the  presence  of  this  disease  are 
fever,  horripilation,  and  the  increased  cough.  The  breathing 
becomes  labored  and  the  expired  air  has  a  horribly  foul  odor; 
the  pulse  quickens;  the  animal  moans  pitifully;  prostration  is 
marked,  the  animal  being  compelled  from  sheer  exhaustion  to 
frequently  lie  down;  the  appetite  fails;  rumination  ceases; 
diarrhea  is  a  frequent  but  not  constant  symptom,  and  when  it 
exists  the  stools  are  particularly  offensive  ;  the  tongue  is  hot  and 
dry.  The  beast  dies  from  exhaustion,  induced  probably  by  a 
septic  toxemia. 

The  autopsy  reveals  evidence  to  sustain  the  assertion  that  the 
lungs  and  pleura  are  the  original  seats  of  this  affection  and  that 
the  intestines  are  secondarily  involved.  The  lungs  are  often 
gangrenous  and  sometimes  contain  abscesses  ;  the  vesicles  may 
be  filled  with  a  sero-purulent  material.  These  represent  not 
distinct  and  separate,  but  different  degrees  of  the  same  patho- 
logical process.  The  pleura  is  inflamed,  there  are  adhesions, 
and  it  is  often  gangrenous.  When  the  alimentary  canal  is 
affected,  the  first,  second,  and  especially  the  third  stomachs 


134  FOOD. 

are  inflamed  and  gangrenous.  The  food  is  usually  hard  and 
unaffected  by  the  digestive  fluids  ;  it  is  sometimes  found  putres- 
cent.  The  fourth  stomach  is  frequently  similarly  affected,  but 
the  food  is  not  hard  or  putrefying.  This  disease  terminates 
fatally,  and  no  satisfactory  treatment  has  as  yet  been  instituted. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease.  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease  is  a  highly 
contagious  affection,  due  to  a  specific  cause,  as  yet  undetermined, 
but  probably  microbic.  As  its  name  implies,  it  attacks  the  feet 
and  mouth.  In  cows  the  udder  is  frequently  affected.  It  is 
characteri/ed  by  a  vesicular  eruption  on  the  mucous  membranes 
and  those  parts  covered  by  delicate  skin,  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture, and  a  definite  course.  This  disease  usually  terminates  in 
recovery. 

No  authenticated  cases  have  occurred  in  this  country,  although 
among  the  animals  shipped  to  Great  Britain  in  1880  were 
twenty-one  cattle  and  sixty-three  sheep  suffering  with  this  dis- 
ease. As  foot  and  mouth  disease  is  highly  contagious  and  an 
epidemic  is  possible,  inspectors  should  ever  be  on  the  alert  to 
detect  it  and  institute  such  precautions  as  will  prevent  its  spread. 

TypJius  Contagiosus.  This  is  a  contagious  disease  produced 
by  a  specific  poison  undoubtedly  microbic.  An  epidemic  of  the 
disease  is  favored  by  uncleanliness,  crowding  the  beasts  in  small 
and  badly  ventilated  apartments,  bad  food,  and  inclement  and 
especially  variable  weather.  The  incubation  period  is  from  six 
to  twelve  days. 

I'Yom  the  very  beginning  of  the  disease  the  animal  is  listless. 
It  does  not  browse  with  the  usual  avidity,  but  wanders  about  in 
a  dull  and  stupid  manner  ;  it  does  not  stand  long,  lying  down 
frequently  and  for  a  long  time  ;  the  thirst  is  intense,  appetite 
is  lost,  and  rumination,  if  not  completely,  almost,  ceases  ;  the 
functions  of  the  emunctories  are  suspended;  secretions  are  dried 
up;  the  special  senses  become  obtuse;  the  animal  in  some  in- 
stances becomes  wild  and  furious  ;  spasmodic  contraction  of  the 
facial  muscles  sometimes  occurs  ;  sensibility  is  greatly  increased 
along  the  spine  ;  respiration  may  be  greatly  embarrassed  and  is 
evidently  painful.  The  tongue  and  buccal  mucous  membrane 
may  be  inflamed  and  livid  streaks  are  to  be  observed,  which  often 
ulcerate;  this  inflammatory  process  may  occur  in  any  portion 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  Later  in  the  disease,  from  the  eyes, 


MEAT    INSPECTION — ACTINOMYCOSIS.  135 

which  are  tumefied  and  swollen,  is  exuded  a  thin  fluid  which 
produces  an  intense  irritation  of  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes 
in  contact.  A  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  mouth  also 
occurs,  diarrhea  follows  the  constipation,  and  there  is  an  insati- 
able thirst.  The  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue  is  filled  with  gas 
and  under  pressure  crepitates.  If  the  animal  does  not  succumb 
in  the  earlier  stages,  it  becomes  a  living  mass  of  purulent  matter 
and  finally  dies  of  septic  toxemia. 

Actinomycosis.  Actinomyces,  or  ray  fun- 
gus, is  the  exciting  cause  of  this  disease. 
The  disease  belongs  to  the  infective  granu- 
lomata.  The  manner  of  extension  and  its 
destructive  nature  led  many  to  regard  it  as 
a  malignant  growth,  either  carcinomatous  or 
sarcomatous.  As  the  tongue,  which  is  us- 
ually involved,  becomes  indurated,  the  Ger- 
mans have  designated  the  disease  "  wooden  AcTINO*x'C8ootiianu  Funeus) 

tonguej"     in     tlllS    COlintry    it    is    known    as      From  bovine  actinomycosis. 

"  big  "  or  "  lumpy  jaw,"  from  the  enlarge- 
ment which  ensues  when  the  jaw  is  implicated.  The  dorsum  of 
the  tongue,  the  lower  jaw,  and  pharynx  are  the  organs  most  fre- 
quently affected.  The  fungus  is  usually  introduced  with  food, 
such  as  rye  and  barley.  Ingress  of  the  mature  organism  into 
the  tissues  can  only  take  place  when  there  exists  a  solution  of 
continuity  on  the  surface  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes. 
The  formation  of  nodules  is  characteristic  of  the  disease;  they 
are  about  ^°f  an  'ncn  l°ng  ar>d  /8  of  an  inch  wide,  slightly 
elevated  and  flattened.  The  epithelium  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane covering  the  nodule  degenerates,  desquamates,  and  ulti- 
mately, in  these  situations,  ulcers  are  formed.  When  the  organ- 
ism locali/es  in  the  tissues  it  first  induces  inflammation,  then 
cellular  hyperplasia.  The  inflammation  pursues  a  very  chronic 
course,  progressing  steadily,  destroying  all  structures,  excepting 
none,  that  may  be  in  its  path.  First,  about  the  seat  of  irritation 
appear  numerous  small,  round  cells  which  infiltrate  in  all  direc- 
tions, following  this,  proliferation  of  the  fixed  cellular  elements 
ensues.  About  the  fungus  and  in  the  center  of  the  nucleus  of 
round  cells  are  developed  epithelioid  and  giant  cells.  Exten- 
sion of  the  disease  locally  takes  place  along  the  connective  tissue 


1 36  FOOD. 

spaces.  Dissemination  of  the  disease  is  induced  by  the  entrance 
of  the  organism,  its  bulbous  ends  or  spores,  into  the  circulation 
through  defects  in  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  its  arrest 

&  & 

in  distant  capillaries,  where  it  establishes  independent  centers 
of  infection. 

Pus  is  the  result  of  mixed  or  secondary  infection  with  pus 
microbes.  Suppuration  leads  to  a  more  active  inflammation  and 
diffusion  of  the  infective  material.  The  minute  anatomy  of  actino- 
mycosis  so  closely  resembles  that  of  sarcoma  and  tuberculosis  as 
to  render  an  absolute  diagnosis  impossible  unless  we  discover  the 
ray  fungus. 

The  symptoms  of  actinomycosis  are  very  indefinite,  depend- 
ing altogether  upon  the  organ  or  organs  involved  and  the  super- 
vention of  the  metastasis  and  secondary  infection. 

If  the  tongue  or  jaw  is  the  seat  of  the  disease,  the  course  of 
the  affection  is  very  slow,  and  in  the  early  stages  no  definite 
symptoms  are  manifest.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  tongue  or  jaw  interferes  with  the  feeding,  and  insali- 
vation  and  mastication  are  but  imperfectly  performed.  Indiges- 
tion and  faulty  assimilation  are  sequences  of  imperfect  insaliva- 
tion  and  mastication.  Emaciation  begins  with  the  occurrence  of 
digestive  disturbances,  and  though  so  slight  at  first,  and  so  slow 
in  its  progress  as  not  to  be  manifest  until  the  disease  is  quite  ad- 
vanced, yet,  if  the  animal  lives,  it  becomes  extreme.  In  these 
cases,  salivation  is  one  of  the  first  as  well  as  the  most  pronounced 
symptom,  and  the  authors  have  seen  the  saliva  flow  for  several 
hours  in  a  slow  though  constant  stream  from  animals  suffering 
with  "  wooden  tongue."  If  the  liver  or  any  other  appendage  of 
the  digestive  track  is  the  seat  of  actinomycosis,  its  functions 
are  quickly  abolished,  and  digestive  disturbances  become  early 
and  marked  symptoms. 

Should  secondary  infection  occur  the  course  of  the  malady 
will  be  more  rapid;  the  thermometer  will  generally  show  a  slight 
rise  of  temperature  with  decided,  though  irregular,  daily  exacer- 
bations, and  remissions  which  occasionally  fall  below  the  normal. 
An  in.satiable  thirst,  great  weakness,  drooping  of  the  head,  horri- 
pilation, and  diarrhea  are  symptoms,  one  or  all  of  which  .shortly 
follow  the  occurrence  of  secondary  infection  by  pyogcnic  organ- 
isms, and  their  severity  depends  upon  the  importance  of  the 


MEAT    INSPECTION — ANTHRAX.  137 

structures  involved  and  the  intensity  and  extent  of  the  suppura- 
tive  process. 

Metastasis  augments  the  symptoms  and  hastens  the  advance 
of  the  disease.  If  the  animal  is  not  killed  involvement  of  the 
mediastinal  glands,  to  be  shortly  followed  by  death,  almost 
invariably  ensues. 

Anthrax  (synonyms,  charbon,  melzbrand)  occurs  in  cattle, 
sheep,  and  pigs. 

Anthrax  is  due  to  a  germ,  the  bacillus  anthracis.  The  incu- 
bation period  is  from  twenty-four  hours  to  four  days. 

This  disease  manifests  itself  in  three  forms:  (i)  acute ;  (2) 
sitbacute ;  (3)  exanthematous. 

The  acute  is  also  known  as  the  apoplectic  and  is  the  most 
rapidly  fatal  form.  Its  duration  after  the  period  of  incubation  is 
from  a  few  minutes  to  several  hours.  The  animal,  apparently 
healthy  one  moment,  the  next  may  fall  suddenly  in  a  convul- 
sion, which  death  quickly  terminates.  If  the  acute  is  prolonged 
it  passes  into  the  sitbacute,  in  which  the  animal  loses  its  appetite, 
secretions  are  arrested,  trembling  and  horripilation  set  in,  fol- 
lowed by  fever.  The  circulation  becomes  accelerated  and  the 
breathing  difficult  and  oppressive.  Tonic  and  clonic  spasms, 
exhaustion  and  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  are  later  manifestations. 
Diarrheal  discharges  streaked  with  blood,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. In  the  exanthematous  or  carbuncular  form,  in  addition 
to  any  or  all  of  the  above  phenomena,  we  have  the  formation  of 
carbuncles  and  erysipelatous  rashes,  which  are  tumefied  and 
painful,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  ulceration. 

Post-mortem.  Rigor  mortis  is  moderate,  the  abdominal  pa- 
rietes  distended  with  gas.  In  the  pleural  and  abdominal  cavities 
are  sero-hemorrhagic  exudations.  Petechire  and  ecchymoses 
are  seen  in  the  pleura,  pericardium,  endocardium,  omentum, 
mesentery,  and  intestinal  walls.  The  lungs  contain  dark,  degen- 
erated, grumous  blood  in  large  amounts.  The  heart  is  flabby 
and  pale,  except  in  situations  of  hemorrhagic  transudation 
where  the  tissues  are  stained  a  deep  red  by  the  escaped  color- 
ing matter  of  the  disintegrated  blood.  The  liver,  kidney, 
and  spleen  are  enlarged,  softened,  granular,  and  very  friable.  The 
excessive  enlargement  of  the  spleen  is  most  noticeable  and  is  a 
constant  occurrence.  Considerable  areas  in  these  organs  are 
9 


138  FOOD. 

infiltrated  with  sero-hemorrhagic  transudations.  In  the  intes- 
tines small  ulcers  are  not  uncommon.  The  mucous  membranes 
lining  the  intestinal  and  respiratory  tracts  present  evidence  of 
inflammatory  processes.  The  minute  pathological  changes  in- 
dicate that  the  bacillus  anthracis  incites  in  the  tissues  a  non- 
suppurating  inflammation.  The  blood-vessels  contain  such  vast 
numbers  of  organisms  that  the  circulation  is  so  impeded  as  to 
induce  ischemia.  The  bacilli  are  found  in  greatest  numbers  in 
the  vascular  viscera  (liver,  kidney,  spleen)  and  where  the  blood 
current  is  slowest.  The  capillaries  are  enormously  distended  by 
the  accumulation  of  blood  and  the  presence  of  bacilli.  The 
integrity  of  their  walls  is  often  destroyed  and  rhexis  occurs. 
Local  edema  is  the  result  of  the  lumen  of  a  blood-vessel  be- 
coming obstructed  by  the  aggregation  of  numberless  bacilli,  caus- 
ing transudation,  emigration,  and  diapedesis  ;  thus  the  para- 
vascular  and  connective  tissue  spaces  become  crowded  with 
leucocytes,  preventing  reabsorption  of  the  serum,  increasing  the 
extravascular  pressure,  and  thus  enhancing  the  obstruction  to 
the  circulation. 

The  red  blood  cells  undergo  a  degenerative  process  and  many 
are  destroyed  by  the  bacilli.  Leucocytosis  sometimes  exists, 
but  it  is  relative  rather  than  absolute. 

Prognosis.  From  60  to  70  per  cent,  die,  probably  from  the 
action  of  specific  bacterial  products  upon  the  respiratory  center. 

To  insure  destruction  of  the  contagion,  all  animals  dying  ot 
anthrax  should  be  burned. 

Anthracoid  Diseases.  Empliysema  Infectiosum  and  Texas 
Fever. 

Empliysema  Infectiosum^  or  black  quarter,  is  an  acute  infectious 

malady,  due   to  a  small  and  thin  motile  bacillus.     This  bacillus 

has  been  demonstrated  at  the  site  of  the  local 

fit;.    44. 

lesion  and  in  the   blood.     An    intravenous   in- 


_\ 

^"*    \ 


jection  of  fluid  containing  this  bacillus  is  inno- 
«»  cuous,  the  serum   or  phagocytes  destroying  it, 

\^  </  but  if  an   injury  is  inflicted  severe  enough  to 

SYMITOM.VUC-  ANTHKAX.  produce  extra  vasution  ,  the  organism  localixes 

Kni]i>iyscin;iin.'<:c.li<isiiin  .  .... 

at  this  locus  minoris  resistcncia  and  exerts  its 
specific  action.  Death  usually  follows  in  a  few  hours  the 
appearance  of  the  initial  symptoms,  and  may  be  attributable  to 


MEAT  INSPECTION — TEXAS  FEVER.  139 

the  absorption  of  toxines.  Other  than  the  local  effects  of  the 
injected  organism,  no  lesions  are  to  be  detected  when  the  ani- 
mal dies  in  the  early  stages.  If  the  animal  does  not  quickly 
succumb,  gangrene  of  the  affected  part  supervenes.  An  enor- 
mous quantity  of  gas  is  generated  in  the  tissues,  giving  rise  to  a 
marked  emphysema.  When  the  skin  is  stroked  or  an  incision 
made  into  the  tissues,  crepitation  is  noted,  and  hence  the  term 
Rauchbrand,  which  is  also  applied  to  this  affection. 

After  death  rigor  mortis  sets  in  early  and  is  usually  quite  pro- 
nounced, the  blood  is  dark,  grumous,  and  not  coagulated, 
although  occasionally  ante-mortem  thrombi  are  found  ;  extrava- 
sations are  met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  carcass  and  the  tissues 
are  generally  deeply  stained.  Infiltration  of  the  subcutaneous 
an^l  connective  tissues  by  a  yellow  gelatinous  material  often 
happens.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  enlarged  and  injected  and 
more  or  less  stained  by  disintegrated  blood.  The  abdominal 
and  thoracic  cavities  contain  bloody  exudations.  The  pleura  and 
omentum  are  injected  and  petechial  spots  are  sometimes  found. 

The  mucous  membranes  are  injected,  and  throughout  the 
alimentary  canal  numerous  ecchymotic  spots  occur;  the  epithe- 
lium degenerates  and  in  many  places  desquamates.  A  charac- 
teristic odor  emanates  from  all  parts  of  the  carcass. 

Texas  Fever.  There  exists  a  striking  analogy  between  the 
Texas  fever  of  cattle  and  the  yellow  fever  of  man.  The  condi- 
tions under  which  these  diseases  exist,  and  which  favor  their 
development,  which  limit  or  arrest  their  progress  or  destroy 
them,  are  identical.  The  similarity  between  the  maladies  is 
maintained  in  the  course  which  they  pursue.  Hence  we  might 
infer  that  the  same  cause  is  acting  in  each  of  these  diseases. 
Sternberg  asserts  that  yellow  fever  is  engendered  by  a  micro- 
organism which  has  not  as  yet  been  identified,  but  which  he 
claims  to  be  in  a  fair  \vayof  discovering.  The  poison,  whatever 
it  may  be,  is  confined  to  certain  districts,  or  rather  we  should  say 
that  its  life  and  virulence  is  dependent  upon  certain  definite  and 
well-defined  climatic  conditions.  Warm,  moist  climates  are 
particularly  adapted  for  the  development  of  the  poison,  while 
frost  destroys  it.  The  influence  of  cold  is  well  seen  in  Texas, 
where,  during  a  prevailing  or  severe  epidemic,  if  cold  east  winds 
or  one  of  their  famous  "  Northers  "  set  in,  the  severity  of  the 


I4O  FOOD. 

disease  is  greatly  mitigated,  or  it  may  be  completely  checked 
and  disappear. 

Billings  advocates  dividing  the  disease  into  three  stages:  first, 
Stadium  incubations  or  the  period  of  incubation  ;  second,  Stad- 
ium accremcnti,  or  a  period  of  activity,  or  progressive  stage  ; 
third,  Stadium  decrementi,  or  period  of  decline.  The  incubation 
period  is  from  20  to  30  to  40  days.  The  disease  is  ushered  in 
by  a  chill,  followed  by  a  fever,  thirst,  perverted  secretions,  mark- 
edly elevated  temperature,  accelerated  pulse,  and  exhaustion. 
The  attitude  of  the  animal  is  peculiar  and  characteristic  ;  the 
head  droops  as  though  the  animal  was  too  exhausted  to  hold  it 
up ;  the  ears  fall  forward,  the  hind  legs  are  advanced  under  the 
body,  thereby  causing  arching  of  the  spine,  and  marked  depres- 
sions appear  in  the  flanks.  In  many  cases  hematuria  exists  and 
often  is  the  first  patent  manifestation  of  the  disease.  With  the 
progress  of  the  disease  the  temperature  declines  and  the  exhaus- 
tion becomes  extreme.  Apathy  and  stupor  are  the  precursors 
of  death.  The  prognosis  is  very  unfavorable,  from  30  to  70  per 
cent,  dying. 

Recent  experiments  by  Dr.  Theobald  Smith  and  F.  L.  Kil- 
borne,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  seemed  to  demonstrate  that  the 
etiological  factor  in  Texas  fever  is  a  peculiar  microorganism. 
In  their  article  the  parasites  are  described  as  pyriform  bodies 
from  2  to  4  <>•  in  length,  and  from  1.5  to  2  /•*  in  diameter  at  the 
widest  portion.  These  bodies  are  found  principally  within  the 
red  blood  corpuscles,  two,  usually,  occupying  one  corpuscle. 
The  organisms  are  disposed,  almost  invariably,  with  their  taper- 
ing end  in  juxtaposition,  though  no  mutual  connection  between 
them  could  be  demonstrated.  The  authors  describe  two  forms, 
probably  different  stages  in  development  of  the  .same  organ- 
ism. The  smaller  forms  are  homogenous,  while  the  larger  forms 
contain  in  the  rounded  end  a  small  spherical  body,  which,  in 
contrast  with  the  substance  of  the  parasite  is  very  dark  in  ap- 
pearance;  though  in  several  cases  when  examined  with  very 
high  powers,  it  manifested  a  remarkably  brilliant  appearance. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  body  is  from  o. I  to  0.2  //.  in  diameter. 
Oval  bodies,  somewhat  larger  than  the  spherical  body  just  de- 
scribed, were  discovered  in  the  large  round  ends  of  the  largest 


MEAT    INSPECTION — TEXAS    FEVER.  141 

pyriform  bodies.  The  size  of  this  body  is  given  at  from  o  5  to 
I  //.  The  parasites  when  examined  upon  a  warm  stage  exhibit 
ameboid  movement  very  much  resembling  that  seen  in  the 
leucocytes  of  mammalian  blood. 

The  authors  of  these  investigations  deduce  from  their  obser- 
vations that  the  ameboid  movement  only  occurs  in  the  younger 
parasite,  and  that  the  conformation  of  the  mature  pyriform  bodies 
is  fixed  and  undergoes  no  change. 

The  parasite  may  be  stained  with  Loffler's  alkaline  methylene 
blue  solution,  or  by  aqueous  solutions  of  methyl  violet,  or 
gentian  violet.  When  treated  with  methylene  blue  the  periph- 
eral portions  are  stained,  while  the  center  remains  quite  un- 
affected. The  intracellular  parasites,  in  the  acute  manifestations 
of  the  disease,  frequently  occur  as  single,  irregular  bodies,  and 
the  paired  pyriform  bodies  are  comparatively  rare. 

Dr.  Salmon  and  his  co-laborers  attribute  to  the  tick,  the  import- 
ant role  of  being  the  sole  infection  carrier,  and  positively  state 
that  without  the  tick  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  is  impossible. 

The  period  of  incubation,  determined  by  inoculation  experi- 
ment, is  given  as  six  to  ten  days. 

Texas  fever  exerts  its  principal  and  primary  effects  upon  the 
blood,  and  the  pathological  alterations  noted  in  the  spleen,  liver 
and  kidneys  are  only  secondary  processes. 

The  affected  red  corpuscles  become  irregularly  notched  and 
creased  and  are  beset  with  spine-like  projections.  Their  color  is 
usually  darker  than  that  of  the  normal  corpuscles. 

The  destruction  of  the  red  blood-corpuscles  is  the  most  con- 
stant and  salient  feature  of  Texas  fever,  and  the  above  investiga- 
tors record  cases  in  which  the  corpuscles  disappeared  at  the  rate 
of  from  700,000  to  1,000,000  per  cubic  millimeter  during  the  last 
few  days  of  life.  These  examples  were  from  the  severer  types  of 
the  disease;  in  the  milder  form,  however,  the  destruction  of  the 
corpuscles  was  less  extensive.  The  destruction  of  the  corpuscles 
is,  in  all  cases,  directly  proportionate  to  the  severity  of  the  attack. 

These  experiments  may  prove  to  be  invaluable,  but  before  be- 
ing accepted  as  final,  should  receive  the  confirmation  of  other 
investigators.* 

*This  book  was  in  press  when  we  obtained  an  account  of  these  investigations,  and 
consequently  we  had  not  the  opportunity  to  thoroughly  review  the  work. 


142  FOOD. 

Post-mortem.  The  liver  is  enlarged,  soft,  friable,  and  very 
pale.  Upon  section  it  is  stained  a  peculiar  yellowish  color,  the 
effect  probably  of  the  admixture  of  the  blood  and  bile  which 
escape  into  the  tissues.  The  gall  bladder  is  distended  with  a 
viscid  fluid.  The  spleen  is  greatly  enlarged,  in  some  cases 
weighing  as  much  as  ten  pounds.  It  is  degenerating  and  granu- 
lar. Kidneys  are  congested,  enlarged,  and  granular.  Abom- 
asus  congested  and  marked  by  many  petechiae.  Small 
intestines  congested  and  the  seat  of  hemorrhagic  and  serous 
transudations.  The  cecum,  colon,  and  rectum  are  also  the  sites 
of  similar  processes.  The  other  organs  and  tissues  are  described 
as  seemingly  normal  ;  this  is  questionable ;  they  have  probably 
all  undergone  at  least  those  changes  which  are  the  concomitants 
of  continued  elevation  of  temperature. 

Tuberculosis.  The  cause  of  this  scourge  is  the  bacillus  tuber- 
culosis. This  disease  is  infectious  and  presents  definite  and  charac- 
teristic symptoms  :  macroscopical  and  microscopical  lesions. 

The  order,  in  frequency,  of  primary  infection  of  organs  is  (i) 
the  lymphatic  glands  ;  (2)  serous  membranes  of  thorax  and 
abdomen  ;  (3)  lungs  ;  (4)  liver  ;  (5)  kidneys  ;  (6)  brain.  The 
udders  of  cows  are  often  the  site  of  tubercular  disease  and  many 
cases  supposed  to  be  garget  or  weed  (simple  mammitis)  are  in 
reality  tuberculosis.  The  heart,  spleen,  and  general  muscular 
system  in  cattle  is  seldom  the  seat  of  primary  infection. 

If  the  ingesta  contain  the  infecting  bacilli,  it  is  the  mesenteric 
glands  that  first  manifest  evidence  of  the  disease.  If  the  infec- 
tion occurs  through  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes,  usually  it  is 
the  nearest,  anatomically,  situated  lymphatic  glands  that  develop 
the  characteristic  change  before  the  viscera  are  at  all  affected. 
The  glands  become  tumefied  and  softened.  The  afferent  vessels 
are  obstructed  by  the  inflammatory  products  and  the  access  of 
additional  bacilli  prevented.  If  the  number  of  bacilli  increase, 
it  is  due  to  the  pullulation  of  those  already  present. 

Tubercles  develop  on  the  infected  serous  membranes,  and  by 
confluence  form  large  nodular  masses.  From  the  peculiar  ap- 
pearance of  these  masses  they  have  received  many  names,  each 
intended  to  be  descriptive  ;  thus  in  Great  Britain  they  are  known 
as  the  "  grapes  "  and"  angle  berries,"  and  in  Germany  as  "  cluck 
weed  disease  "  and  "  pearl  disease  "  (Perlsucht). 


MEAT    INSPECTION — TUBERCULOSIS.  143 

Pathology.  Lungs.  The  gross  appearance  of  a  lung  in  fairly 
well  developed  cases  of  phthisis  is  striking.  Considerable  areas 
of  tissue  contiguous  with  the  tubercular  foci  frequently  present 
the  appearance  of  intense  congestion.  The  tubercular  nodules 
are  opaque,  grayish  or  grayish-yellow  in  color,  and  vary  in  si/.e 
within  wide  limits.  The  smaller  tubercles  cannot  be  seen  by  the 
unaided  eye,  though  if  the  hand  be  passed  over  a  cut  surface, 
they  will  convey  an  impression  which  may  be  likened  to  that  of 
grains  of  sand  embedded  in  the  tissues.  The  larger  tubercles 
are  engendered  by  the  confluence  of  many  of  these  minute  foci. 
In  miliary  tuberculosis,  hyperemia  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  bronchi  is  generally  to  be  seen.  It  begins  in  the  main 
bronchi  and  increases  in  intensity  as  it  proceeds  downward  into 
the  smaller  bronchi.  Increase  in  the  production  of  mucus, 
which  becomes  quite  adhesive  and  viscid,  is  the  constant  accom- 
paniment of  hyperemic  bronchi.  According  to  Rindfleisch, 
localization  and  pullulation  of  the  bacillus  tuberculosis  occurs  at 
the  junction  of  the  bronchioles  and  acini.  The  exceedingly  de- 
structive processes  engendered  and  the  coalescence  of  many  tuber- 
cles cause  extensive  involvement  of  the  lung  structures.  The 
contraction  of  the  surrounding  connective  tissue  upon  the  blood- 
vessels and  the  greatly  increased  extra-vascular  pressure  cut  off 
the  blood  supply  to  the  tubercular  mass,  which  undergoes 
caseation  or  a  fatty  degeneration  and  the  lung  tissues  within  this 
area,  coagulation  necrosis.  Disintegration  and  liquefaction  of 
this  material  supervenes  and  it  is  converted  into  a  creamy  liquid; 
the  color  is,  frequently,  greenish-yellow.  Communication  with 
a  bronchus  being  effected,  this  puriform  material  is  extruded  and 
there  remains  at  these  sites  large  cavities.  It  is  claimed  that 
bronchiectasis  plays  an  important  part  in  the  extension  of  the 
disease,  and  Rindfleisch  asserts  that  dilated  bronchi  form,  in 
part,  the  walls  of  some  cavities.  There  are  cavities  which  do 
not  seem  limited  by  a  definite  wall,  but  are  environed  by  soften- 
ing tubercular  and  caseous  masses  and  breaking-down  lung 
tissue.  Other  cavities  seem  to  be  lined  by  a  granulation  mem- 
brane, which  exudes  a  foul  smelling,  greenish-yellow,  puriform 
material.  In  recently  formed  cavities  the  sides  are  uneven  and 
ragged,  and  large  bands  of  lung  tissue,  bronchi  and  blood-vessels 
traverse  them  in  all  directions.  In  miliary  tuberculosis  both  lungs 


144  FOOD. 

are  involved  throughout  and  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  so  rapid 
that  the  animal  succumbs  before  the  above  processes  develop. 

In  the  other  organs  primary  infection  is  a  rare  occurrence, 
the  changes,  however,  are  nearly  identical,  being  modified  slightly 
by  the  structure  of  the  viscus. 

Minute  Anatomy  of  a  Tubercle.  The  deposition  of  the  bacil- 
lus tuberculosis  in  the  tissues  results  in  the  destruction  of  the 
proper  tissue  elements  and  in  the  production  of  tubercles.  The 
integral  parts  of  a  tubercle  are,  (i)  reticulum,  containing  in  its 
meshes  (2)  embryonal  tissue,  consisting  of  (a)  leucocytes  which 
have  migrated  from  the  blood-vessels  of  the  affected  area,  and  (b] 
epithelioid  cells,  the  progeny  of  the  fixed  connective  tissue  and 
other  cognate  elements,  such  as  the  endothelial  cells  of  the  capil- 
laries and  lymphatics.  With  the  progress  of  the  disease,  we  have 
developed  from  the  migrated  leucocytes  lymphoid  cells,  which  at 
one  time  were  supposed  to  be  pathognomonic,  but  which  we 
now  know  to  occur  in  other  affections,  notably  in  phthisis  of 
sheep  due  to  the  strongylus  filaria.  Giant  cells  are  formed  in 
the  center  of  the  inflammatory  foci  by  the  increment  of  the  cell 
continuing,  its  nucleus  dividing,  but  the  perinuclear  protoplasm 
remaining  intact.  Caseation  begins  in  the  center  of  the  nodule 
and  proceeds  toward  the  periphery.  Giant  cells  often  undergo 
a  fibroid  metamorphosis  which  begins  at  the  periphery,  and  they 
ultimately  form  small  cicatricial  masses. 

Epithelioid  cells  are  smaller  than  the  giant  cells;  they  are 
globose  or  ovoid,  have  one  large  nucleus  and  many  smaller  ones, 
and  are  very  granular.  They  ultimately  degenerate,  becoming 
caseous  or  undergoing  fibroid  changes. 

Liver.  In  this  organ  the  tubercular  process  is  both  circum- 
scribed and  diffused.  When  circumscribed  the  nodules  appear 
spherical  or  ovoid  masses,  opaque  and  grayish-yellow  or  yel- 
lowish-green in  color,  and  in  other  physical  characteristics  they 
resemble  those  found  in  the  lungs.  In  diffused  infection  the 
process  commonly  extends  along  the  portal  vein  and  its  ramifi- 
cations. It  offers  greater  or  less  obstruction  to  the  circulation 
of  the  liver,  depending  upon  the  extent  of  the  process  and  the 
pressure  exerted  upon  the  vein.  The  most  characteristic 
feature  of  tuberculosis  of  the  liver  is  its  peculiar  orange- 
yellow  color,  due  largely  to  fatty  changes. 


MEAT    INSPECTION TUBERCULOSIS.  145 

Meninges.  It  is  in  miliary  tuberculosis  that  the  meninges 
of  the  brain  generally  become  involved.  The  earliest  lesions 
become  patent  as  grayish-white,  translucent,  gelatinous  bodies 
disposed  along  the  vessels  of  the  pia  mater.  New  centers  of 
infection  are  continually  forming  as  the  disease  progresses,  and 
tubercles  in  all  sixes  from  the  smallest  possible  visible  point  to 
that  of  a  pea  may  be  seen.  The  intensity  of  the  inflammation 
does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  number  of  tubercles  as 
upon  the  supervention  of  secondary  infection  with  pyogenic 
bacteria. 

As  to  the  membranes  the  pia  undergoes  thickening,  becomes 
opaque  and  is  covered  with  a  gelatinous  exudate,  while  the 
dura  and  arachnoid  also  undergo  thickening  and  form  ad- 
hesions. 

The  choroid  plexus  becomes  extremely  hyperemic,  and 
effusion  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  into  the  ventricles 
almost  invariably  occurs.  Miliary  tubercles  may  be  found 
in  the  cortex,  which,  if  the  effusion  be  slight  or  absent,  may 
also  be  edematous. 

Kidneys  are  subject  to  the  deposition  of  tubercles  in  two 
forms,  disseminated  and  localized.  The  disseminated  form 
occurs  but  rarely,  and  it  consists  in  the  development  of  gray 
tubercles  throughout  the  renal  parenchyma  from  tubercle 
bacilli  deposited  in  the  sheath  of  the  vessels.  The  localized 
is  much  oftener  met  with  and  consists  in  the  deposition  of 
the  tubercular  material  in  the  renal  papilla  by  extension  from 
the  calyxes  and  pelvis.  With  the  development  of  a  number  of 
miliary  tubercles  they  become  confluent  and  in  the  manner 
previously  described  form  large  tubercular  nodules.  Excava- 
tions are  formed  by  these  nodules  undergoing  degenerative 
processes  and  subsequent  extrusion  of  the  caseous  or  liquefied 
elements.  The  kidney  increases  in  size  and  becomes  nodular; 
the  capsule  thickens  and  gets  to  be  quite  indurated,  and  cheesy 
deposits  may  be  found  upon  it.  Ultimately  the  whole  of  the 
renal  parenchyma  is  destroyed  and  nothing  remains  but  the  con- 
nective tissue,  which  originally  formed  the  septa  of  the  calyxes. 

The  course  and  symptoms  of  the  disease  depend  upon,  I. 
Whether  the  animal  is  predisposed  to  the  disease  by  reason  of 
transmitted  tissue  peculiarities  from  one  or  other  of  the  parents. 


146  FOOD. 

If  this  be  the  case,  the  animal  will  possess  powers  of  less  re- 
sistance to  invasion  by  the  bacilli  than  will  the  offspring  of 
healthy  parents.  2.  The  site  of  the  disease  and  the  organs 
involved.  3.  The  occurrence  of  secondary  infection  by  pyo- 
genic  organisms. 

When  the  lung  is  primarily  affected,  usually  the  first  and  most 
pronounced  of  the  early  symptoms  is  a  rough,  weak  cough, 
which  soon  becomes  associated  with  difficult  respiration.  With 
the  progress  of  the  disease,  respiration  becomes  more  frequent 
and  shallow.  In  the  acute  and  subacute  cases  the  frequency  of 
the  heart's  beat  is  increased,  though  diminished  in  force. 

A  continuous  fever  with  a  marked  diurnal  exacerbation  and 
remission  and  emaciation,  which,  though  slight  at  first,  rapidly 
develops  with  the  progress  of  the  affection,  are  also  characteris- 
tics of  the  acute  and  subacute  varieties.  In  cases  where  the 
course  of  the  disease  is  slow,  there  are  no  febrile  manifestations, 
and  generally  the  emaciation  is  so  slight  as  to  be  inappreciable. 
Perversion  of  secretions  sooner  or  later  develops  in  all  cases, 
and  this  results  in  faulty  digestion  and  assimilation  ;  further,  it 
gives  rise  to  indigestion  and  diarrhea.  Thus  does  the  perversion 
of  secretions  indirectly  increase  the  emaciation  and  weakness. 
When  the  intestines  and  peritoneum  become  involved  diarrhea 
of  the  most  severe  and  obstinate  form  sets  in. 

In  cases  where  the  progress  of  the  affection  is  rapid  the  milk- 
is  of  poor  quality,  and  often  the  daily  yield  is  much  diminished. 
Tubercle  bacilli  can  always  be  detected  in  the  milk  when  the 
udder  is  affected  with  the  disease,  and,  moreover,  the  bacilli  have 
been  found  in  milk  when,  after  the  necropsy,  no  tubercular  lesion 
could  be  demonstrated  in  the  organ.  However  slight  maybe 
the  lesion,  this  fact  is  amply  sufficient  to  condemn,  as  food,  all 
milk  from  tubercular  animals.  Tuberculosis  of  the  udder  is 
usually  the  result  of  metastasis  and  almost  invariably  points  to 
the  general  dissemination  of  the  bacilli.  Tuberculosis  of  the 
udder  when  not  complicated  with  infection  by  pyogenic  organ- 
isms always  pursues  a  chronic  course,  and  so  insidious  is  its 
progress  that  were  it  not  for  the  concomitant  symptoms  it  would 
never  be  suspected.  In  such  instances  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  milk  will  depend  upon  the  constitutional  effects  of  the 
disease.  In  the  beginning  of  the  disease  the  yield  of  milk  is 


MEAT    INSPECTION — GLANDERS.  147 

undiminished,  but  if  the  disease  steadily  advances,  it  gradually 
becomes  less  and  less,  until  finally  it  ceases. 

Whenever  secondary  infection  supervenes  the  course  of  the 
malady  becomes  more  rapid,  wide  spreading,  and  destructive. 
Cases  of  purely  tubercular  infection,  excepting  miliary  and  gen- 
eral tuberculosis,  are  usually  extremely  chronic,  and  further  it 
is  possible  for  recovery  to  take  place  by  the  tubercular  area  un- 
dergoing caseation  and  becoming  enclosed  by  a  dense  fibrous 
capsule  or  by  the  supervention  of  calcification.  If  any  animal 
recovers  from  what  has  been  diagnosticated  tuberculosis,  it  does 
not  prove  the  diagnosis  incorrect.  Animals  that  recover  from 
a  tubercular  lesion  are  extremely  liable  to  subsequent  infection. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  any  part  of  the  carcasses  of 
tubercular  animals  be  used  for  food.  An  attempt  should  be 
made  to  stamp  out  the  disease  by  killing  and  incinerating  the 
bodies  of  all  the  affected  animals. 

When  the  interior  of  large  viscera  are  involved,  i.e.,  lungs, 
liver,  brain,  etc.,  the  symptoms  are  more  pronounced,  and 
the  course  of  the  disease  more  rapid  than  when  the  lesions 
occur  externally,  i.e.,  upon  the  pleura,  mesentery,  or  lymph- 
atics. 

Physical  Signs.  When  the  lungs  are  the  seat  of  the  disease, 
deficiency  in  inspiration  on  the  affected  side  is  an  early  devel- 
oped physical  sign.  The  percussion  note  varies  during  the 
course  of  the  disease.  Auscultation  reveals  subcrepitant  rales 
at  the  end  of  inspiration,  and  later  in  the  course  of  the  malady 
larger  moist  or  mucous  rales.  The  respiratory  sounds  also  un- 
dergo changes,  inspiration  becoming  blowing  in  character  and 
ultimately  bronchophonic  ;  with  the  formation  of  cavities  the 
breathing  becomes  amphoric  and  cavernous.  Expiration  is  pro- 
longed. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  positive  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis  can  be 
made  by  subcutaneous  injection  of  tuberculin  ;  healthful  animals 
offering  no  reaction  to  the  reagent,  while  a  marked  hectic  devel- 
opment occurs  in  tuberculous  animals.  There  are  no  objections 
to  its  use,  as  it  is  believed  to  be  innocuous  in  non-tubercular 
animals. 

Glanders  and  farcy  are  due  to  one  and  the  same  cause,  the 
bacillus  mallei,  and  they  differ  only  in  the  seat  of  the  pathologi- 


148  FOOD. 

cal  lesion.  In  glanders  it  is  the  respiratory  tract  that  is  attacked, 
while  in  farcy  the  lesions  are  in  the  cutaneous  and  subcutaneous 
tissues  and  in  the  superficial  lymphatic  glands. 

Glanders  is  essentially  an  equine  disease,  although  it  may  be 
transmitted  to  all  domestic  animals  except  cattle.  Sheep  are 
particularly  susceptible  to  the  poison.  It  occurs  occasionally  in 
man  as  the  result  of  infectious  material  coming  in  contact  with 
an  abraded  surface. 

Glanders  is  highly  infectious,  and  all  animals  attacked  by  this 
disease  should  be  immediately  isolated  or  destroyed,  and  the 
stable  in  which  the  animal  has  been  kept  thoroughly  cleaned, 
disinfected,  and  vacated  for  a  considerable  period. 

Glanders  may  pursue  an  acute  or  chronic  course.  In  acute 
glanders,  the  febrile  manifestations  are  decided,  there  is  an  abun- 
dant discharge  from  the  nostrils,  which  may  be  mucoid  or  muco- 
purulent.  There  is  extensive  ulceration  of  the  nasal  mucous 
membrane,  and  tumefaction  of  the  submaxillary,  cervical  and  sub- 
lingual  glands.  The  lungs  are  the  seat  of  an  intense  inflammation, 
undergoing  the  successive  changes  incident  to  congestion,  effu- 
sion, and  consolidation.  Abscesses  form,  and  small  nodules 
resembling  miliary  tubercles  are  disseminated  through  the  lungs. 

Chronic  glanders  is  very  insidious  in  its  incipiency,  and  for  a 
considerable  period  the  only  manifest  symptoms  may  be  a  viscid 
discharge  from  the  nostrils.  Later  in  the  progress  of  the  affec- 
tion we  have  tumefaction  and  induration  of  the  submaxillary 
glands;  a  cyanotic  appearance  of  the  nasal  mucous  membranes, 
a  development  of  ulcers,  particularly  upon  the  septum.  Febrile 
conditions  may  not  be  evinced  until  late  in  the  malady  ;  ema- 
ciation in  some  cases  is  inappreciable,  in  others,  pronounced. 
In  the  latter  case  the  flesh  is  pale  or  may  appear  dropsical.  In 
the  lungs  miliary  nodules  may  be  detected. 

\v\farcy  also  we  have  presented  the  acute  and  chronic  varie- 
ties. Acute  farcy  is  distinguished  by  a  high  temperature,  accel- 
erated pulse,  thirst,  and  arrested  secretion,  the  rapid  swelling  of 
one  or  more  of  the  limbs,  and  later  by  the  development  of  "  farcy 
buds,"  the  pathognomonic  lesion  of  the  disease.  These  buds  form 
in  the  course  of  the  lymphatic  vessels,  they  rupture  and  discharge 
a  puriform  material  which  is  highly  infectious.  Ulcerations  of 
a  very  intractable  nature  ensue  after  rupture  of  the  buds.  The 


MEAT    INSPECTION — ANIMAL    PARASITES.  149 

chronic  variety  is  usually  without  fever,  and  here,  as  in  the  acute 
form,  we  have  a  plastic  inflammation  in  the  course  of  the  lym- 
phatics which  results  in  the  production  of"  farcy  buttons,"  swell- 
ing of  one  or  more  limbs,  and  tumefaction  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
The  lesions  are  situated  principally  in  the  neck,  withers,  and 
back. 

"  1  loose"  or  the  so-called  "phthisis  of  sheep"  is  due  to  a  para- 
site, of  the  class  Nematoda,  the  Strongylus  filaria.  Organisms 
of  the  same  class  are  found  in  cattle,  the  Strongylus  untcrurns, 
and  in  hogs,  the  Strongylus  paradoxicus.  The  malady  is  usually 
confined  to  small,  circumscribed  areas  in  one  lung,  although  it 
may  be  diffused  and  both  lungs  extensively  involved.  It  excites 
chronic  inflammation  and  causes  an  effusion  of  serum  into  the 
bronchial  tubes  and  atelectasis.  In  the  incipiency,  no  marked 

FIG.  45.  FIG.  46 


BKAIN  OF  LAMH,  with  tracts  of  Coenurus. 

{AJter  Leuckart.)  MEASLY  POKK  (5'i  natural  size). 

systematic  alterations  are  recognizable ;  later  there  is  a  marked 
emaciation  and  exhaustion. 

"  Fluke"  or  "  Liver  Rot"  affects  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  ;  it  is 
occasioned  by  a  flat,  oval,  leaf-like  parasite,  which  is  one  inch 
long  and  one-half  of  an  inch  in  the  broadest  part.  (See  Fig.  24, 
page  49.) 

The  eggs  and  embryo  develop  in  water,  hence  we  find  low, 
swampy,  moist  regions  and  wet  seasons  peculiarly  adapted  for 
the  propagation  of  the  organism  and  conducive  to  the  spread  of 
the  malady.  The  bile  ducts,  the  seat  of  predilection,  are  occluded 
by  aggregations  of  the  parasite,  organic  changes  are  induced, 
and  the  functions  of  the  liver  annihilated  ;  as  a  consequence  we 
have  engendered  anasarca,  jaundice,  diarrhea,  falling  of  the 
hair,  extreme  exhaustion,  and  emaciation. 

"  Turnsick"  "  Strudy"  or  "  Gid  "  is  an  hydatid  disease  of  the 
brain,  or  cord,  of  sheep  and  oxen.  The  drnnriis  ccrcbralis,  of 


150 


FOOD. 


the  class  Cestoda,  the  progeny  of  the  Tcenia  cccmirus  of  the  dog, 
is  the  cause  of  the  malady.  This  disease  in  its  incipiency  is 
very  insidious,  and  no  marked  structural  alterations  of  the 
tissues  are  to  be  detected.  In  the  later  stage  the  animal 
rapidly  emaciates,  becomes  anemic,  has  marked  brain  symp- 
toms, and  there  is  great  depression  of  the  vital  powers. 

"  Measles  of  pigs"  or  "  Afeasly  Pork"  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  the  Cysticercns  cellulosa,  class  Cestoda,  in  the 
muscles,  though  between  the  fibers,  of  both  the  striated 
and  non-striated  varieties.  It  is  also  found  in  the  liver,  impart- 


FlG.    48. 


FIG.  47. 


CYSTICEKCUS  CELLULOS.K. 

Completion  of  head  formation.  X  12  diam. 

(After  Leuckitrt.) 


T.«NIA   SOLIUM. 

a,  head  X  4°  diam.  (After  Leuckart.}     b,  two 
segments  showing  branched  uterus. 


ing  to  it  a  mottled  appearance,  in  the  spleen,  brain,  connective 
tissues,  and  serous  membranes.  The  cysts  are  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  and  may  be  detected  embedded  in  the  tissues  ;  they 
consist  of  a  capsule  containing  fluid  and  the  scolex.  During 
life  there  are  no  diagnostic  symptoms  of  any  value,  and  the  only 
reliable  evidence  of  the  disease  is  presented  by  the  development, 
on  either  side  of  the  inferior  and  the  lateral  aspect  of  the  tongue, 
or  between  this  and  the  lower  jaw,  of  a  chain  of  small,  trans- 
lucent vesicles.  The  body  has  a  dropsical  and  at  times  cyanotic 


MEAT    INSPECTION — ANIMAL    PARASITES.  151 

appearance  ;  to  the  touch  it  is  flabby,  and  firm  pressure  elicits  a 
crackling  sensation,  due  to  the  rupture  of  cysts.  The  Cysticer- 
cus cellulosa  is  the  progenitor  of  the  Tasnia  solium  of  man. 

The  "  Cysticercus  bovis"  "  Measles  "  of  cattle,  is  the  progeny 
of  the  Taenia  mediocanellata.  It  is  found  in  greatest  abund- 
ance in  the  parietes  of  the  head  and  muscles  of  the  haunch. 


FIG.  49. 


T/ENIA  MF.DIOCANELLATA. 
a,  Head  and  immature  segments  (slightly  enlarged).      6,  head  X  30  diam. 

FIG.   50. 


TRICHIN.I-:  STIKALIS. 

a,  Muscle  trichinae,     b,  Male  trichina,    c,  Female  trichina,    i.  Trichina,  showing  opaque  calcareous 
capsule.     When  this  stage  is  reached  in  man,  symptoms  disappear  and  the  patient  recovers. 

The  cysticercus  bovis  is  similar  to  the  cysticercus  cellulosa,  and 
the  observations  made  regarding  the  latter  are,  from  a  hygienic 
standpoint,  equally  applicable  to  the  former. 

Trichiniasis  is  a  disease  attributable  to  the  Trichina  spiralis,  a 
worm  of  the  class  Nematoda.  This  parasite  is  transmitted  from 
the  rat  to  the  pig  and  thence  to  man  by  the  consumption  of 


FOOD. 


FIG.  s> 


infested  meat.  As  occurring  in  the  intestines,  they  are  sexually 
mature  and  reproduce  young  viviparously,  rapidly,  and  in  vast 
numbers.  The  embryos  are  exceedingly  active  and  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  disease  are  attributable  to  their  penetration  of  the 
intestinal  parietes  and  the  subsequent  invasion  of  the  muscles, 
especially  the  striated.  In  the  muscles  the  trichinae  become  en- 
capsulated in  the  muscle  fiber  and  may  be  perceived  by  the 
unaided  eye  as  small,  white,  globose  bodies.  The  capsule  of  the 
cyst,  which  is  composed  of  fibrous  and  calcareous  substances, 
enables  it  to  withstand  high  temperatures,  156°  F.,  extreme  cold, 
desiccation,  and,  after  one  year,  according  to  M.  Fourment,  the 
action  of  salt.  The  number  of  parasites  that  may  inhabit  the 
tissues  is  amazing;  Billings  reports  a  case  in  which  five  centi- 
grams of  meat  contained  at  least  fifty  trichinae.  The  symptoms 
of  this  disease  are  vague  and  ill-defined,  and  no  reliable  diagnosis 
can  be  made  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  (Technic  of 
examination  for  trichinae,  chapter  on  Technic.) 

The  Stephanus  dcntatits  is  responsible  for  a  particular  form  of 

the  disease  in  pigs  known  as  hog 
cholera.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
fat,  where  it  becomes  encysted.  The 
cysts  are  quite  large,  in  some  cases 
being  one  and  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long  and  one-half  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  contain  from  three  to 
six  eggs.  The  phenomena  of  the 
disease  are  the  result  of  migrating 
embryo. 

The  Echinococcu's  vcterinorumt  or 
the  proscolex  stage  of  the  Taenia 
echinococcus,  is  universally  distri- 
buted. It  has  many  heads  and  each 
one  capable  of  developing  into  a 
tapeworm.  This  parasite  infests 
man,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  other 
animals.  It  is  most  frequently 
found  in  the  liver  and  lungs,  and 

in  adults  and  the  aged  rather  than  in  the  young.  The  bladder- 
worm  consists  of  a  membranous  capsule  filled  with  a  limpid  fluid 


T/ENIA  ECHINOCOCCUS  (After  Leuckarf). 
a.  Adult  Tieiiia  echinococcus.    t>.  Head  of 

Echinococciis  veterinorum.     On   the  left 

a  detached  huoklet. 


MEAT    INSPECTION MEAT    TO    BE    CONDEMNED.  153 

and  the  scolex.  They  are  found  as  simple,  endogenous,  and  ex- 
ogenous cysts,  which  may  be  mistaken  for  tubercles.  Animals 
affected  with  echinococcus  veterinorum  should  be  destroyed; 
for,  although  consumption  of  this  meat  may  not  militate  against 
the  health  of  man,  if  fed  to  animals  will  perpetuate  the  tape- 
worm. 

"  Braxy"  is  an  indefinite  term  applied  to  diseases  of  sheep. 
Many  investigations  have  been  made  by  competent  observers, 
and  the  results  are  very  conflicting.  In  certain  districts  the 
term  braxy  is  used  to  designate  anthrax,  whi le  in  other  districts 
it  may  denote  the  ordinary  septic  processes  or  merely  a  cachectic 
state.  In  passing  an  opinion  on  sheep  affected  with  this  malady, 
the  inspector  will  have  to  rely  upon  his  knowledge  of  anthrax 
and  septic  conditions.  How  to  distinguish  these  diseases  is  dis- 
cussed under  cattle  diseases  and  inspection  of  meats. 

Smallpox  occurs  among  sheep  in  a  very  virulent  form,  and 
infected  districts  should  be  placed  under  the  strictest  quarantine 
surveillance.  It  is  exceedingly  infectious  and  is  caused  by  a 
specific  microbic  poison.  The  disease  shows  the  same  character- 
istic eruption  and  symptoms  observed  in  men. 

Meats,  Carcasses,  etc.,  to  be  Condemned.  Animals  dying  from 
or  slaughtered  while  suffering  with  parasitic  diseases,  especially 
epidemic  pleuro  pneumonia,  foot  and  mouth  disease,  Texas  fever, 
cattle  plague,  anthrax,  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  black  quarter, 
variola  ovina,  phthisis  of  sheep  (strongylus  filaria),  fluke  disease, 
gid,  hog  cholera,  measles  of  pigs,  trichiniasis,  or  general  septic 
conditions  should  be  condemned.  If  there  is  no  danger  from 
the  organism  itself,  there  may  be  from  the  toxines  which  are 
the  result  of  its  physiological  activity.  The  latter  fact  prob- 
ably explains  why  so  many  cases  of  poisoning  are  reported  when 
the  meat  which  constituted  the  main  portion  of  the  meal  was 
apparently  healthy.  The  tissues  in  the  animal  parasitic  dis- 
eases ultimately  become  wasted  and  innutritions  and  are  wholly 
unfit  for  food.  If  the  inspector  has  not  the  power  to  have  the 
carcass  destroyed,  he  should  at  least  insist  on  the  destruction  of 
the  part  affected  and  the  contiguous  tissues. 

Tuberculosis  may  be  transmitted  from  cattle  to  man  by  eating 
meat  or  drinking  milk  containing  viable  bacilli  or  spores.  The 
bacilli  have  been  found  in  the  blood,  secretions  and  in  the  juice 

10 


154  FOOD. 

expressed  from  muscles.  Localized  tuberculosis  in  cattle  is  a 
rare  affection.  The  meat  or  milk  of  animals  suffering  from  tuber- 
culosis should  never  be  used  for  food. 

Anthrax,  wool  sorters'  disease,  or  malignant  pustule,  is 
communicated  to  man  from  animals  by  eating  the  flesh  of  in- 
fected animals  or  by  actual  contact  with  the  carcasses  or  hides. 
The  carcasses  should  be  destroyed,  as  they  are  wholly  unfit  for 
food. 

Black  Quarter  is  communicable  to  man.  It  is  highly  infectious, 
and  all  animals  suffering  with  the  disease  should  be  condemned 
and  destroyed. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease  is  infectious.  Livt  states  that  in  1834, 
1835,  and  1839  this  disease  prevailed  among  the  cattle  of  Paris 
and  Lyons,  and  although  sold  for  food  no  bad  results  were 
noted.  The  affected  parts  were  destroyed. 

Cattle  Plagnc.  It  is  asserted  by  some  authorities  that  the 
cooked  flesh  of  animals  dying  or  slaughtered  while  suffering 
with  the  disease  may  be  eaten  with  impunity.  The  pathologi- 
cal changes  in  this  disease  are  so  pronounced  and  general  that, 
in  our  opinion,  animals  affected  with  it  should  be  condemned, 
and  the  majority  of  experts  do  condemn  them,  as  unsuitable  for 
human  food. 

Epidemic  Plenro-pncmnonia  and  Texas  Fever  are  both  probably 
due  to  a  microbic  poison.  Admitting  there  is  no  danger  of 
transmitting  the  disease  to  man,  the  meat  contains  bacterial  pro- 
ducts (ptomaines)  which  may  give  rise  to  poisoning,  therefore 
it  should  be  destroyed. 

Actinomyces  may  never  have  been  proven  to  infect  man  from 
cattle,  still  it  is  possible.  It  is  not  always  a  local  disease,  and 
animals  affected  with  it  should  be  rigidly  inspected.  Man  is  not 
endowed  with  immunity  against  this  organism,  therefore  meat 
infected  with  actinomyces  should  be  unhesitatingly  condemned. 

Trichinosis  occurs  in  man  as  the  result  of  eating  trichinifer- 
ous  meat.  The  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  destroys  the  cap- 
sules and  liberates  the  parasite,  which  rapidly  matures  and 
multiplies.  As  the  parasite  penetrates  the  entire  economy,  the 
carcass  should  be  rejected  as  a  whole. 

Inspection  of  Dead  Meat.  In  many  instances  it  is  impos- 
sible for  the  inspector  to  examine  the  living  animals.  On  such 


MEAT    INSPECTION — DEAD    MEAT.  155 

occasions  he  should  demand  the  viscera,  and  cases  from  which 
they  are  not  obtainable  should  excite  suspicion  and  the  carcass 
be  subjected  to  the  closest  scrutiny.  The  inspector  should  en- 
deavor to  guard  against  the  tricks  practised  by  some  butchers,  e.g., 
introducing  a  quill  into  the  subcutaneous  tissue  of  poor  animals 
and  blowing  it  full  of  air,  or  forcing  into  it  melted  fat.  The 
carcasses  in  such  cases  exhibit  a  more  or  less  emphysematous 
condition.  The  skewering  of  the  fat  of  one  animal  to  the  car- 
cass of  another,  and  selling  it  for  the  first  ;  a  procedure 
known  as  stripping,  that  is,  removing  the  pleura  when  it  is  af- 
fected by  disease ;  and  substituting  one  kind  of  meat  for  another, 
are  artifices  often  perpetrated. 

The  macroscopic  and  microscopic  appearance  of  the  organs 
are  described  under  the  various  diseases.  Inspection  of  dead 
meat  should,  when  feasible,  take  place  from  six  to  forty-eight 
hours  after  slaughtering;  and  the  method  of  killing,  dressing, 
and  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  temperature,  and  humidity  be 
taken  into  consideration.  In  eviscerated  carcasses  special  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  the  condition  of  the  lymphatic  glands, 
connective  tissues,  skeletal  muscles  and  bone  marrow. 

Lymphatic  Glands.  In  healthy  young  and  adult  animals  these 
glands  are  of  firm  consistence,  moist,  and  of  a  uniform  grayish- 
yellow  color,  and  in  anile  animals  are  at  times  indurated  and 
portions  of  the  periphery  pigmented.  Congestion,  tumefaction, 
hemorrhagic  areas,  exudations,  and  infiltration  of  the  glands  in- 
dicate disease,  and  corroborative  evidence  should  be  looked  for 
in  other  parts  of  the  carcass.  The  regions  in  which  the  glands 
are  most  readily  discovered  are — sternal,  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  the  ninth  and  tenth  dorsal  vertebrae,  the  lumbar,  and  in 
the  deep  and  superficial  inguinal  regions. 

Connective  tissue  in  health  has,  after  a  short  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  a  glistening  appearance  and  is  very  moist,  though  no 
dripping  should  occur.  In  some  places  it  contains  considerable 
quantities  of  fat,  while  in  others  it  is  quite  free  from  adipose 
tissue.  Occasionally  small  veins  are  perceived  crossing  it,  and 
this  imparts  to  the  meat  a  marble  appearance.  Connective  tissue  is 
found  in  greatest  abundance  in  the  flanks,  breast,  under  the 
shoulders,  above  and  posterior  to  the  perinephritic  fat,  along 
the  spine,  and  immediately  subjacent  to  the  diaphragm,  and  it  is 


156  FOOD. 

in  these  situations  that  dropsical  effusions  accumulate  and  where 
we  frequently  detect  evidence  of  tuberculosis. 

Skeletal  Muscles.  Healthy  flesh  or  muscular  tissue  presents 
certain  characteristics  in  different  animals,  thus,  in  the  adult  ox, 
it  has  a  uniform  florid  appearance,  which  in  the  young  ox  is  lighter, 
but  after  the  animal  has  passed  its  sixth  year  becomes  darker.  It 
exhales  a  pleasant  odor,  especially  when  cooking,  has  a  delectable, 
sweetish  taste  ;  it  is  firm  and  elastic,  but  not  tough,  its  resistance  is 
uniform,  and  rigor  mortis  sets  in  early.  The  fat  ranges  from  white 
to  straw  color  except  in  Jerseys  and  Guernseys,  where  it  is  yel- 
low. The  muscular  tissue  of  the  horse  is  darker  and  coarser 
than  that  of  an  ox,  its  odor  is  rather  unpleasant,  and  it  has  a 
sweetish,  sickening  taste.  The  fat  is  yellow  and  softer  than  that 
of  an  ox.  The  muscular  tissue  of  the  calf  is  pale  and  lacks  the 
firmness  of  ox  flesh.  The  fat  is  also  pale  and  soft.  In  the  fetus 
and  new  born  calf,  "  monkey  veal,"  the  flesh  is  watery  and  has  a 
macerated  appearance,  and  the  fat  resembles  tallow. 

Muscular  tissue  of  sheep  is  a  light  red  color,  it  deepens  with 
age,  and  in  the  old  ram  and  ewe  is  almost  as  dark  as  the  flesh  of 
the  ox.  It  is  firm  and  sets  early.  The  fat  is  white  and  firm  and 
is  evenly  distributed  over  the  back  and  sides  of  the  animal.  The 
fat  is  not  found  between  the  individual  muscles  to  any  extent. 
The  odor  emanating  from  the  carcass  is  distinctive. 

The  muscle  of  the  hog  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  sheep,  and  it 
is  much  softer,  as  is  also  the  fat,  which  has  an  unctuous  feeling 
and  is  deposited  in  smooth  layers  around  the  kidneys  and  over 
the  back  and  sides,  forming  the  "  panniculus  adiposus."  The 
flesh  of  pigs  has  a  slight  though  characteristic  odor,  which  in 
old  boars  becomes  more  pronounced. 

Pallor  of  muscular  tissues  is  a  concomitant  of  dropsical  con- 
ditions, hydremia,  indigestion,  and  choking;  in  the  latter  two 
the  muscles  are  seemingly  parboiled  and  macerated,  and  are  the 
seat  of  serous  and  sero-hemorrhagic  transudations. 

White  flesh  is  due  to  the  presence  of  abnormal  quantities  of 
adipose  tissue,  the  formation  of  which  is  facilitated  by  conditions 
engendering  diminished  oxidation.  If  it  occurs  in  a  small  and 
circumscribed  area,  it  is  of  no  moment,  but  if  general,  it  indi- 
cates grave  pathological  changes. 

Yellow  color  occurs  occasionally  in   healthy  animals,  but  is 


MEAT    INSPECTION — PICKLED    AND    SALTED    MEATS.  157 

usually  dependent  upon  functional  diseases  of  the  liver.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  gall  bladder  the  tissues  are  stained,  but  this  stain- 
ing is  circumscribed.  To  warrant  condemnation  it  should  be 
associated  with  other  changes  which  indicate  disease. 

A  magenta  hue  is  observed  in  the  acute  stage  of  some  specific 
affections,  such  as  rinderpest  and  tuberculosis.  Upon  section 
there  is  an  albuminous  exudation,  which,  coagulating  upon  the 
exposed  surface,  imparts  to  it  a  glossy  appearance. 

A  scarlet  hue  is  seen  in  carbonic  oxid  and  arsenical  poisoning  ; 
reddish  brown  or  black  due  to  imperfect  aeration  of  the  blood 
in  organic  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  in  mechanical  obstructions 
to  the  entrance  of  air  into  the  lungs.  It  occurs  in  poisoning  by 
alcohol,  chloroform,  ether,  and  turpentine,  also  in  inflammatory 
affections,  drowning,  suffocation,  and  imperfectly  bled  animals. 
A  mahogany  color  is  caused  by  faulty  decarbonization  of  the 
blood  and  is  found  in  organic  diseases  of  the  lung  and  liver, 
especially  pleuro-pneumonia  and  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

Iridescence  occurs  in  blood  diseases,  prolonged  fevers,  in- 
flammatory affections,  and  parturition.  Green  color  denotes 
decomposition,  gangrene,  diffusion  of  vegetable  coloring  matter, 
medicinal  agents,  the  escape  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  during  evisceration  and  in  the  abdominal  muscles  when 
evisceration  is  delayed  for  some  time,  and  yellowish-green  when 
the  bile  escapes  from  the  gall  bladder. 

The  marrow  in  temperate  climates  should  be  free  from  pig- 
mentation or  hemorrhagic  spots.  In  the  hind  legs  it  is  of  firm 
consistence  and  rosy  red  ;  in  the  forelegs  it  is  diffluent  and  of  a 
lighter  color. 

Pickled  Meats.  Flesh  intended  for  pickling  should  be  per- 
fectly healthy,  fresh,  and,  when  feasible,  "boned."  The  pickling 
process  should  be  thoroughly  and  carefully  done.  Proof  of 
faulty  pickling  may  be  detected  by  a  superficial  examination,  but 
often  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  deep  incisions,  and  the  inspector 
should  be  particular  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  the  tissues 
contiguous  to  bones. 

Salted  meat  may  give  rise  to  poisoning  from  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing causes:  (i)  well  salted  but  diseased  meat,  (2)  well  salted 
but  old  meat,  (3)  imperfect  or  bad  salting.  In  the  first,  its 
noxious  character  may  depend  upon  the  toxines  or  other  poison- 


158  FOOD. 

ous  substances  which  are  not  destroyed  by  the  pickling  process, 
in  the  second,  it  will  probably  depend  upon  chemical  changes 
that  may  take  place,  and  in  the  third,  will  result  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  bacteria  or  from  poisonous  chemical  products  devel- 
oped in  the  meat.  If  brine  is  used  several  times,  it  may  acquire 
poisonous  properties.  In  July,  1880,  an  outbreak  of  poisoning 
occurred  in  Wellbeck  and  Notts.  Ballard  investigated  the  out- 
break, and  reported  that  seventy-two  persons  were  attacked,  and 
four  cases  terminated  fatally.  The  symptoms  were  marked 
prostration,  vertigo,  nausea,  griping  pains  in  the  abdomen,  pains 
in  the  chest,  and  diarrhea.  Klein  assisted  in  the  investigation, 
and  he  states  that  the  necropsy,  in  the  four  fatal  cases,  revealed 
marked  evidence  of  pulmonary  and  intestinal  inflammation.  The 
kidneys  were  involved,  as  proven  by  microscopic  examination  ; 
the  uriniferous  tubules  contained  hyaline  casts,  and  the  afferent 
arterioles  and  capillaries  of  the  glomeruli  were  filled  with  bacilli. 
Culture  inoculations  were  made,  and  the  cause,  a  bacillus  from 
0.003  to  0.009  mm.  long,  and  0.0013  mm.  thick,  with  rounded 
extremities,  isolated.  Upon  the  slide  these  bacilli  were  arranged 
singly  and  in  chains,  and  in  some  of  them  spores  were  seen. 

Sausage  Poisoning.  Many  theories  have  been  advanced  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  active  agent  in  sausage  poisoning  (botulism, 
allantiasis). 

The  bias  of  the  scientific  mind  favors  the  theories  which 
ascribe  to  bacteria  or  their  ptomaines  the  noxious  properties. 
Van  den  Corput  has  described  a  microorganism  (sarcinia  botulin) 
which  he  believes  to  be  the  active  agent.  Miillerand  Hoppe- 
Seyler  have  discovered  divers  microorganisms  in  meat.  Gaffky 
and  Back  investigated  cases  of  poisoning  following  the  eating 
of  sausage  the  ingredients  of  which  were  horse  flesh  and  liver. 
They  isolated  a  short,  thick  bacillus,  which,  when  administered 
to  animals  with  the  food,  injected  subcutaneously  or  intraven- 
ously, produced  symptoms  identical  with  those  observed  in  the 
original  cases.  The  symptoms  were  those  of  intense  intestinal 
irritation  with  marked  prostration.  Some  authorities  assert  that 
putrefying  sausages  have  a  "  dirty,  grayish-green  color  and  a 
soft,  smeary  consistency,"  an  odor  resembling  putrid  cheese, 
an  unpleasant  taste,  and  impart  to  the  mouth  and  pharynx  a 
burning  sensation. 


FOWLS INSPECTION    OF    POULTRY.  159 

For  proving  the  presence  of  a  poison,  microbic  in  origin,  no 
reliable  and  speedy  test  is  available  where  the  symptoms  appear 
within  two  to  six  hours  after  the  ingestion  of  the  meal.  Kach  sep- 
arate dish  of  which  the  meal  was  composed  should  be  examined 
and  a  physiological  test  made.  This  is  usually  best  accomplished 
by  feeding  the  suspected  food  to  an  animal,  for  which  purpose 
the  dog  is  best  adapted. 

Fowls.  The  fowl  used  for  food  may  be  either  wild  or  domes- 
tic (poultry).  The  difference  between  the  two  probably  lies 
largely  in  the  character  of  the  food  upon  which  they  have  sub- 
sisted. The  flavor  is  certainly  almost  exclusively  dependent 
upon  the  diet,  and  for  this  reason  the  so-called  game  fowls,  such 
as  the  quail  and  wild  duck,  are  the  richer  and  tastier,  while  the 
domestic  fowl  is,  as  a  rule,  the  fatter  and  equally  readily  digested. 
The  chicken  represents  very  nearly  the  composition  of  the 
turkey,  the  goose  that  of  the  duck,  and  the  partridge  that  of  the 
wild  fowls.  The  subjoined  table  gives  proportionately  the 
proximate  principles  found  in  each. 

Water.  Albuminates .  Fat. 

Fat  chicken, 7O-°3  23-32  3- '5 

Fat  goose, 38.02  '5-91  45-59 

Partridge, 7l-9^>  25.26  1.43 

The  domestic  turkey  and  chicken  and  the  game  fowls  are  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  food,  but  the  domestic  goose  contains  such 
an  enormous  quantity  of  fat  as  to  be  rarely  commendable.  The 
game  fowl  has  become  a  luxury,  and.it  is  to  be  regretted,  rarely 
calls  upon  the  food  inspector  for  review. 

Inspection  of  Poultry.  The  diseases  which  affect  poultry. 
and  to  which  man  is  susceptible,  though  few,  are  of  the  utmost 
importance. 

Tuberculosis.  All  domestic  fowls,  and  chickens  in  particular, 
are  very  susceptible  to  tuberculosis.  Diseases  which  were  for- 
merly diagnosticated  "  croup,"  "  roup,"  "  gregarinosis,"  and 
"  diphtheritic  aphtha  "  were,  in  fact,  nothing  less  than  tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis,  usually,  first  manifests  itself  upon  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  nostrils,  or  eye,  as  a  croupous  or  diph- 
theritic membrane.  The  exudate  from  these  parts  forms  upon 
the  surface  a  lamellated  membrane  of  a  vellow  color.  The  mem- 


l6o  FOOD. 

brane  is  firmly  adherent  to  the  superficial  mucosae,  and  if  it  be 
forcibly  removed  a  raw,  bleeding  surface  remains.  From  the 
mouth  the*  false  membrane  extends  to  the  crop,  and  the  latter  in- 
volves the  proventriculus  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal ;  it  then  extends  to  the  mesentery  and  ultimately  to 
the  liver.  When  any  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal  becomes 
infected  nodes  develop,  and  they  may  be  found  varying  in  size 
from  a  pin's  head  to  a  walnut.  Ulceration  of  the  intestines  fre- 
quently occurs;  and  sometimes  the  lumen  of  the  intestine  is 
occluded  by  the  formation  of  a  membrane  similar  in  character 
to  the  one  above  described.  The  lesions  in  the  mesentery,  liver, 
and  spleen  are  always  nodular,  and  the  nodes  may  develop  to 
such  considerable  dimensions  as  to  completely  suspend  the 
functions  of  the  organ.  The  throat  and  lungs  become  involved 
by  extension  of  the  process  from  the  nostril,  and  the  eyeball  by 
extension  from  the  conjunctiva.  The  spleen  is  frequently  the 
seat  of  this  disease ;  the  kidneys  and  testicles  are  sometimes  af- 
fected, though  usually  as  the  result  of  metastasis.  The  heart  is 
never  affected.  The  breast  and  feet  are  at  times  the  seat  of  local 
tuberculosis,  infection  having  occurred  through  the  fowls  perch- 
ing upon  infected  roosts  or  in  receiving  wounds  with  infected 
pieces  of  glass,  nails,  etc.,  which  may  be  found  strewn  about  the 
poultry  yard. 

Diphtheria  of  Pigeons  and  Chickens.  It  is  not  as  yet  deter- 
mined beyond  all  controversy  that  the  diphtheria  of  pigeons 
and  the  diphtheria  of  chickens  are  not  identical  with  the  diph- 
theria which  afflicts  man. 

In  pigeons  the  parts  usually  affected  are  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  the  fauces,  and  corners  of  the  mouth  ;  while  in  chickens 
the  most  frequent  seats  of  the  disease  are  the  tongue,  the  nares, 
the  larynx,  and  conjunctiva. 

The  first  manifestations  of  the  disease  are  small  patches  of  in- 
flammation upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and 
fauces.  Lateral  these  patches  exudation  occurs  with  the  forma- 
tion of  a  pseudo-membrane  which  is  stratified,  becomes  some- 
what thick,  and  is  of  a  yellow  color.  From  the  outset  there  is 
fever  and  symptoms  of  poisoning.  The  malady  is  very  fatal 
among  pigeons  and  chickens,  and  the  young  especially  are  ex- 
tremely susceptible.  The  demonstration  of  the  bacillus  of  diph- 


FISH — OYSTERS — MUSSELS.  IOI 

• 

theria  in  the  lesions  would,  of  course,  settle    the  question   of 
condemnation. 

Fish.  The  varieties  of  fish  utili/.ed  for  food  are  almost  in- 
numerable. There  is  but  very  little  material  difference  between 
the  individual  varieties  in  the  nutritive  value,  and  as  given  by 
Chapman  the  composition  is  about  as  follows  :— 

Water, 740. S2 

Albumin, l.i7-4° 

Collagen, 43-88 

Fat 45.97 

Extractives i()-97 

Salts, 14-96 

Fish,  besides  being  highly  nutritious,  is  easily  digested, and,  as 
suggested  by  Parkes,  the  supply  of  phosphorus  makes  it  emi- 
nently a  fitting  diet  for  brain  workers.  The  theory  that  diseases 
of  the  skin,  including  leprosy,  originate  from  a  constant  fish  diet, 
does  not  seem  to  be  substantiated  by  any  known  facts.  Fish  roe 
is  highly  nutritious  ;  the  hard  variety  consists  of  the  ovary  of 
the  female  fish,  while  the  soft  roe  is  the  spermatic  organ  of  the 
male  and  is  known  as  the  "  milt." 

Oysters  and  mussels  are  usually  considered  with  fish,  although 
belonging  to  a  separate  group,  the  mollusca.  Oysters  present 
about  the  following  composition,  as  given  by  Chapman  : — 


Water,      80.385 

Nilrogenized  substances, 14010 

Fat, 1.515 

Salts, 2.695 

Loss, i  .395 


111  selecting  fish  for  food,  it  is  important  that  it  should  be 
perfectly  fresh,  as  there  is  probably  no  other  food  which  under- 
goes such  rapid  decomposition.  If  there  is  any  evidence  of 
decomposition,  any  blubbering  at  the  gill,  dryness  or  slipping  of 
the  scale,  or  any  odor,  not  that  peculiar  to  the  individual  variety 
under  inspection,  or  if  icing  has  not  been  thorough  since  the 
catching,  the  fish  should  be  rejected  for  food.  Wherever  possi- 
ble, fish  should  be  kept  alive  as  long  as  circumstances  will 


l62  FOOD. 

permit,  and  preferably  only  killed  immediately  prior  to  being 
cooked. 

It  seems  not  improbable  that  fish,  oysters  and  mussels  possess 
the  faculty  of  retaining  poisonous  products  engendered  by  the 
water  in  which  they  are  found.  Whether  they  merely  absorb 
and  retain  this  poisonous  property  or  whether  it  is  engendered 
within  the  organism  during  life  or  immediately  after  death  has 
not  as  yet  been  definitely  determined.  Poisoning  as  developed 
from  mussels  has  been  studied  most  carefully.  Thus  in  the 
British  Medical  Journal  for  September  15,  1888,  the  following 
case  was  reported,  which  may  be  said  to  be  typical  of  this  class 
of  cases.  A  shipwright,  fifty  years  of  age,  collected  a  quantity 
of  mussels  which  had  adhered  to  the  bottom  of  a  float.  He  ate 
three  or  four  quarts  of  them,  some  boiled,  and  some  raw.  Within 
a  few  hours  the  symptoms  evinced  themselves;  he  was  attacked 
with  violent  abdominal  pains  accompanied  by  vomiting  ;  uncon- 
sciousness rapidly  developed  with  perfect  relaxation  of  the 
muscles,  including  those  of  respiration.  By  the  aid  of  artificial 
respiration  he  was  kept  alive  for  six  or  seven  hours.  At  no 
time  did  the  respiratory  functions  reassert  themselves,  and  death 
took  place  in  less  than  eight  hours  after  the  ingestion  of  the 
poison. 

Mussel  poisoning  is  said  to  take  place  most  frequently  during 
the  summer  months  and  rarely  in  winter.  Brieger  believes  that 
he  has  isolated  from  the  mussel  a  poison  belonging  to  the  group 
of  ptomaines,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  mytilotoxin.  He 
believes  that  it  is  developed  in  the  liver  of  the  mollusca.  As 
the  liver  possesses  a  peculiar  faculty  of  storing  up  toxic  ele- 
ments, Brieger's  discovery  does  not  establish  the  generation  of 
the  poison  in  the  liver,  and  therefore  leaves  us  much  in  doubt  as 
to  its  probable  source.  As  this  poisonous  principle  seems  to  be 
engendered  only  in  contaminated  water,  and  not  always  by  any 
individual  member  of  the  mollusca  family,  it  would  seem  that 
water  pollution  is  an  essential  factor  in  its  development. 

Potatoes,  Carrots,  Cabbage,  Beets,  and  Turnips.  These 
represent  very  common  and  widely  used  vegetables,  all  having 
a  more  or  less  definite  composition  with  slight  variations  depend- 
ent no  doubt  upon  soil  and  variety.  The  potato  is  rich  in  starch 


POTATOES.  163 

and  contains  a  relatively  small  quantity  of  salts.  The  starch 
digests  with  readiness  and  yields  an  abundance  of  vegetable 
acids  and  their  combination  with  potash,  soda,  and  lime.  By 
reason  of  their  keeping  qualities  as  a  fresh  vegetable,  potatoes 
are  probably  more  extensively  used  than  any  other  member  of 
the  group.  Where  no  other  vegetable  is  taken,  Parkes  advises 
that  at  least  from  ten  to  twelve  ounces  of  potato  should  enter 
into  the  daily  diet.  The  composition  of  the  potato  as  given  by 
Chapman  is  as  follows  : — 

Water, 66.876 

Starch, 30.469 

Albumin, o  503 

(Iluten, °-°55 

Fat, 0.056 

Gum,      0.020 

Asparagin, 0.063 

Extractives, 0.921 

Potassium,  chloric!,    .    .                 ........  0.176 

Iron, 

Manganesium .... 

Albuminium,  Silicatts, 

Sodium,    1'hosphates, 0.81.5 

Potassium,  Citrates, 

Calcium, 

Free  citric  acid, o  047 


In  the  selection  of  potatoes,  Parkes  recommends  that  the  speci- 
fic gravity  be  taken  as  the  determining  factor  of  quality,  and 
Sfives  the  following  table  : — 


Below  1068  the  quality  is  very  bad. 

Between  1068 — 1082  "     inferior. 

Between  1082 — 1105  "     rather  poor. 

Above  1105  "     good. 

Above  mo  "  "     best. 


The  specific  gravity  is  best  obtained  in  a  solution  of  common 
salt,  having  a  known  density.  The  potato  should  have  shallow 
eyes  and  there  should  be  no  evidence  of  fungoid  growths.  Crack- 
ing or  fissuring  of  the  surface  is  usually  brought  about  by  too 
long  exposure  in  the  sun  immediately  after  digging,  or  too  low 
a  temperature  before  sufficient  drying  has  taken  place.  Both 
materially  deteriorate  the  vegetable. 


164  FOOD. 

The  Swirt  Potato  differs  in  its  composition  from  the  ordinary 
potato  in  that  it  contains  a  little  more  than  half  as  much 
starch  and  in  addition  about  ten  per  cent,  of  sugar.  It  does 
not  possess  so  good  keeping  qualities,  cannot  be  cooked  with 
animal  foods,  and  is  less  easily  digested  than  the  ordinary 
potato. 

The  Ya»i  is  closely  allied  to  the  sweet  potato,  but  contains 
more  starch  and  very  much  less  sugar. 

Carrot.  The  composition  of  the  carrot  as  given  by  Yeo  is: 
water  85  to  88  per  cent.,  about  eight  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates, 
including  a  variable  quantity  of  sugar,  one  per  cent,  of  salts,  and 
slightly  over  one  per  cent,  of  proteid  matter.  The  parsnip  pre- 
sents about  the  same  composition  as  the  carrot,  but  is  not  so 
extensively  used  as  a  food. 

Beet  roofs  afford  one  of  the  most  nutritious  vegetables,  con- 
taining about  ten  per  cent,  carbonaceous  and  one  and  one-half 
per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  matter,  with  about  one  per  cent,  of 
salts. 

Cabbage.  The  group  of  vegetables  to  which  cabbage  be- 
longs presents  a  remarkable  fact  in  that  the  order  (Cruciferae)  is 
said  not  to  possess  a  single  poisonous  plant,  a  botanical  fact,  as 
Yeo  remarks,  of  great  importance  to  those  searching  for  food  in 
unfamiliar  countries.  The  order  includes  the  various  forms  of 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  and  salad,  vegetables  useful 
largely  for  their  anti-scorbutic  properties,  and  possessing  but 
little  nourishment. 

Cereals.  The  Cerealia  represent  the  largest  number  of  vege- 
table foods,  including  barley,  maize,  rice,  rye,  wheat,  and  millet. 
The  indigestible  element  in  the  cereals  is  the  cellulose,  oats  con- 
taining the  largest  quantity  of  this  element  and  rice  the  least. 
The  special  valuable  food  constituents  are  the  vegetable  albumin, 
fat,  starch,  and  sugar.  In  the  process  of  making  flour  and  meal, 
the  outer  hull,  composed  for  the  most  part  of  cellulose,  is  removed. 
In  America,  wheat  and  maize  (Indian  corn)  are  utilized  almost 
exclusively  for  bread,  while  in  Europe,  rye  and  barley  replace  to 
a  certain  extent  the  corn.  The  following  table  gives  the  approxi- 
mate food  value  of  the  grains  as  constructed  from  tables  in  Yeo 
taken  from  Bauer  : — 


CEREALS — BUCKWHEAT. 


I65 


Nitro- 
genous 
Sub- 


WHKAT,     12.42 

"      (finely  ground),    .' I  8.91 

"       (coarsely  ground) |  11.27 

RYK j  11.43 

"     (finely  ground), ;  10.21 

"     (coarsely  ground), 1 1. 06 

BARLEY, 11.16 

"      MKAI., io>'9 

PEARL  BARLKY 7.25 

OATS, 11.73 

OAT  MEAL, 14-29 

MAIX.K, 10.05      4  76     66.78 


"       MEAL, 14.00      3.80  7068  0.86      10.60 

RICE, 7.81      0.69     76.40      0.78      1.09      13  23 


Siarcli, 

Sugar, 

Cellu- 

K;a. 

(iiini, 

lose. 

C1C. 

1.70 

67.89 

2.66 

I.I  I 

74.28 

0.33 

1.22 

73-65 

0.84 

1.71 

67.83 

2.01 

1.64 

7354 

0.64 

2.O9 

67.78 

2.  6  I 

2.12 

65-5I 

4.80 

1-23 

7  '-S5 

o-47 

I.I5 

76.19 

136 

6.04 

55-43 

10.83 

5.65 

65-73 

2..M 

W;,tcr 


1.79 

'356 

0,51 

14.86 

084 

I  2.  1  8 

'  77 

15.26 

0.98 

'3-99 

1.69 

'4-77 

2.63 

'3-79 

0.63 

•483 

'•23 

12.82 

3-05 

12.72 

2.  02 

1007 

1.69 

13.88 

(ground), 


7-43      0-89 


41.15 


Barley  and  oats,  although  containing  valuable  nutritive  ele- 
ments, are  rarely  used  as  foods  in  this  country,  except  as  com- 
ponent parts  of  soups.  In  Scotland,  however,  they  are  largely 
used  ;  they  possess  a  high  nutritive  value.  Rice  differs  from 
other  cereals  in  that  it  possesses  a  comparatively  low  percentage 
of  proteid  matter,  3  to  7.5  per  cent.,  and  an  extremely  small 
quantity  of  fat,  less  than  i  per  cent.,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
contains  an  enormous  amount  of  starch,  varying  between  70 
and  80  per  cent.  The  starch  is  easily  digested  and  readily  pre- 
pared for  the  table. 

Bitcku'licat,  which  is  largely  used  in  this  country  as  a  food,  is  not 
a  member  of  the  cereal  family,  but  belongs  to  the  natural  order  of 
Polygonaceae.  Its  composition  as  given  by  Bauer  is  as  follows  : — 

Water, 14.27 

Nitrogenous  substances, Q.-8 

Fat.  .  .     I 


Starch,  cellulose,  etc., 
Ash, 


89 
70.08 
0.90 


Although  somewhat  indigestible  as  ordinarily  prepared,  buck- 
wheat contains  abundant  nutritive  elements. 


1 66 


FOOD. 


Peas  and  Beans.  (Nat.  Ord.  Leguminosse.)  The  members 
of  this  group  contain  a  large  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  as 
vegetable  casein  and  albumin,  together  with  starch,  and  better 
than  any  other  vegetable  can  be  utilized  as  a  substitute  for  ani- 
mal food.  Peas  and  beans  are  richer  in  inorganic  salts,  including 
the  combinations  of  sulphur,  phosphorus,  soda,  potash,  lime, 
and  magnesia,  than  the  cereal  grains.  The  composition  of  beans 
and  peas  is  as  follows : — 

Peas.  Beans. 

Water, I4-31  13.60 

Nitrogenous  substances, 22.03  23.12 

Fat, 1.72  2.28 

Starch,  etc., 52.24  53-()3 

Cellulose, 5.45  3.84 

Ash, 2.65  3.52 

Dried  peas  and  beans  are  also  utilized  as  a  food,  and,  although 
their  digestibility  is  reduced  by  the  drying  process,  their  nutri- 
tive value  is  but  little  altered.  Rarely  are  peas  and  beans  adulter- 
ated ;  reduction  in  food  value  often  results  from  deficient  quality 
and  long  over-ripening,  making  the  vegetable  much  harder  to  di- 
gest. Occasionally  when  dried  they  may  be  infested  by  insects. 

Fruits.  Fruits  vary  enormously  in  their  nutritious  properties, 
but  fulfil  the  requirements  for  variation  in  diet,  supply  salts,  veg- 
etable acids,  and  other  anti-scorbutic  agents.  They  also  have 
the  advantage  of  being  readily  tinned,  preserved,  or  dried.  (See 
Condensed,  Tinned,  Dried,  and  Preserved  Foods.)  The  follow- 
ing table  as  given  by  Yeo  after  Bauer  approximately  presents  the 
composition  of  the  most  commonly  used  members  of  the  group  : — 


Water 

Nitrogenous  matters,  .... 

Free  acid,      

Sugar, 

Other  non-nitrogenous  matters, 
Cellulose  and  kernel,  .... 
Ash,  . 


83.02     80.03 


87.66     84.77     89-01 


0-39 

0.36 

0.65 

0-59 

0.07 

0.51 

0-73 

0.84 

O.2O 

0.92 

0.79 

°-93 

2.15 

2.44 

7-73 

8.26 

4.48 

24.36 

6.28 

6.38 

4  59 

5-17 

3-54 

7-'7 

1.96 

0.48 

0.90 

0.95 

1.98 

4-3°  ' 

6.06 

3.60 

2-32 

4-57 

1.79 

0.31 

0.31 

0.69 

°53 

o.Si 

0.72 

0.49 

EVAPORATED  AND  DRIED  FOODS.  l6j 

It  would  seem  from  a  study  of  food  values  that  the  presence  of 
the  vegetable  acids  is  the  most  important  factor  in  estimating  the 
value  of  this  group.  Apples,  pears,  gooseberries  and  peaches  yield 
malic  acid,  lemons  and  oranges  citric  acid,  while  tartaric  acid  and 
the  tartrates  are  supplied  largely  by  the  grape. 

Fruits  should  be  secured  fresh  and  never  green,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  gooseberries  and  currants,  which  are  sometimes  utili/ed  for 
pies  and  pastry  in  their  green  state.  No  fruit  in  any  stage  of  de- 
composition should  be  used  for  food.  Many  fruits  which  are  not 
only  healthful,  but  nutritious  in  their  native  climate,  are  un- 
doubtedly made  less  healthful,  if  not  actually  injurious,  by  the 
necessity  of  transporting  them  prior  to  their  natural  ripening  and 
imitating  this  by  artificial  processes.  The  banana  typifies  this 
group.  When  fruits  are  brought  from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  cli- 
mate, in  order  to  supply  the  market  prior  to  the  ripening  of  the 
product  in  that  zone,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  an  almost  invari- 
able rule  that  such  fruits  are  not  innocuous. 

Foods,  Evaporated,  Tinned,  Condensed,  Preserved,  etc. 
Among  the  foods  are  several  which  may  be  either  evaporated, 
condensed,  tinned,  or  preserved. 

The  evaporated  foods  consist  largely  of  evaporated  fruits,  such 
as  apples,  peaches,  occasionally  pears  and  berries.  Considera- 
ble loss  takes  place  in  weight,  representing  the  loss  in  aromatic 
principles  (ethers)  and  water.  The  evaporation  may  be  secured 
at  low  temperatures  exposed  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  and  when  so 
prepared  the  article  is  sold  as  dried  fruit,  or  at  higher  tempera- 
ures  in  dryers,  when  it  is  known  as  evaporated  fruit.  The  former 
is  to  be  preferred. 

COMPOSITION  OF  DRIED  FRUITS. 


CHHKKY.          KAIMN. 


Water,      27.95  49. SS  3202  31.20 

Nitrogenous  matter, 1.28  2.07  2.42  4.01 

Fat, 0.82  0.30  0.49  1.44 

Free  acid, ....  3.60  .    .  .    .  1.21 

Sugar, 42.83  31.22  54.26  49.79 

Other  non-nitrogenous  matter,  ...  17.00  '4-29  7-4§  4-5 ' 

Cellulose  and  seeds, 4.95  0.61  1.72  4.9^ 

Ash 1-57  1.63  1.21  2^6 


1 68  FOOD. 

Meat  may  be  dried  at  a  low  temperature,  either  in  mass  or 
finely  divided,  in  which  case  it  is  afterward  reduced  to  a  powder. 
In  mass,  it  is  hard,  firm,  tough,  semi-elastic,  and  while  it  may  be 
palatable,  it  is  difficult  to  cook,  and  as  eaten  raw,  is  liable  to 
communicate  disease.  Various  forms  of  meat  are  preserved  by 
drying,  some  are  sold  as  powders,  others  in  strips  which  are 
known  as  "jerked"  meat  strips,  the  meat  having  been  cut  in 
strips,  dipped  in  brine,  and  hung  up  to  dry  ;  occasionally  they 
are  dried  without  dipping  in  brine. 

Milk  may  be  evaporated  to  dry  ness  and  sold  as  a  powder,  al- 
though it  is  digested  with  difficulty.  Bread,  crackers,  including 
biscuits,  may  be  evaporated  to  dryness  and  sold  as  powders  or  in 
compressed  cakes  ;  occasionally  the  powders  are  mixed  with 
powdered  meat,  sometimes  with  vegetables.  Rice,  potatoes, 
beans,  etc,  are  sometimes  cooked,  evaporated,  and  sold  in  powder 
form,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  nitrogenous  food.  Egg  albu- 
men may  be  evaporated  to  dryness  ;  occasionally  the  whole  egg 
is  mixed  with  cracker  dust,  evaporated  and  preserved  in  that 
manner.  The  yolk,  however,  does  not  keep  well  and  propor- 
tionately lessens  the  keeping  properties  of  the  mass. 

Among  the  condensed  and  concentrated  foods  we  have  the 
different  forms  of  condensed  milk,  extracts  of  meat,  meat  juices, 
clam  and  oyster  juices,  either  evaporated  and  seasoned  to  the 
consistency  for  keeping  or  sealed  in  bottles  or  jugs,  more  rarely 
in  tin  cans.  Among  the  many  forms  of  condensed  milk,  that 
having  the  best  keeping  properties,  after  opening,  is  that  to  which 
has  been  added  a  varying  quantity  of  milk-sugar  or  more  com- 
monly cane-sugar.  As  a  rule,  the  milk  is  condensed  to  about  one- 
fourth  its  volume.  Although  further  condensation  is  claimed, 
it  is  rare  that  such  claims  are  well  founded.  Of  the  various  meat 
extracts,  those  following  the  formula  of  Liebig,  or  some  modifi- 
cation, are  deserving  of  the  most  consideration.  The  viscid 
extract,  darkish  in  color,  which  is  obtained  by  Liebig's  process, 
consists  of  the  salts,  some  albumin,  creatin,  some  blood,  corpus- 
cular elements,  and  a  mixture  of  other  nitrogenous  substances. 
Armour's  American  product  closely  resembles  Liebig's  Kxtrac- 
tum  Carnis,  as  docs  various  preserved  juices,  such  as  Johnston's, 
Carnrick's,  Valentine's,  Murdock's,  and  other  forms,  usually  util- 
i/.ed  as  readily  available  foods.  Occasionally  peptones,  which 


ADULTERATION    OF    TINNED    FOODS.  169 

are  but  some  of  the  forms  of  semi-digested  meats,  may  be  used 
as  forms  of  condensed  or  concentrated  foods. 

Of  the  tinned  foods,  we  now-a-days  have  nearly  all  the  vege- 
tables tinned,  many  of  the  meats  tinned,  including  fish  and  oysters. 
The  tinned  food  products  may  be  considered  as  having  about 
the  same  nutritive  value  as  the  raw,  provided  that  the  quality 
of  the  material  tinned  is  equally  high;  they  arc,  however,  not  so 
easily  digested. 

Adulteration  of  Tinned  Foods.  Dr.  Leffmann  is  of  the 
opinion  that  copper,  while  rarely  present,  when  used  for  coloring 
peas  and  similar  vegetables  is  in  such  a  small  quantity  as  to  be 
insignificant.  Aside  from  the  dangers  attributable  to  decompo- 
sition, foods  may  contain  acids  which,  by  acting  on  the  lead  or 
tin,  produce  poisonous  salts  ;  practically,  lead  does  not  enter 
into  the  question,  as  Leffmann  and  Beam  have  not  found  evidence 
of  lead  salts  in  a  single  instance.  The  poisonous  salts  usually 
consist  of  some  combination  of  a  vegetable  acid  with  tin.*  Where 
suspicion  may  arise  as  to  tinned  goods  having  given  rise  to 
poisoning,  any  of  the  remaining  pioduct  may  be  strained  or 
filtered,  or  both,  and  the  filtrate  treated  with  a  solution  of  hydro- 
gen sulphid  ;  if  any  of  the  poisonous  metals  be  present,  a  pre- 
cipitate of  the  sulphid  will  occur.  The  salt  present  can  then  be 
determined  in  the  usual  manner.  In  meat,  the  poison  is  usually 
that  due  to  some  of  the  bacterial  alkaloids,  known  as  ptomains. 
Entirely  reliable  chemical  tests  are  not  as  yet  forthcoming  for 
the  detection  of  these  products,  and  so  far  as  experience  in  the 
matter  goes,  it  seems  probable  that  the  feeding  of  suspicious 
material  to  an  animal  will  afford  the  most  reliable  clue.  Given 

*  Bulletin  Xo.  sj,  Part  8,  dinned  l\'getabU's,  just  issued,  apparently  shows  an 
alarming  amount  of  food  adulteration,  both  intentional  anil  unintentional.  In  the 
former  would  be  included  the  greening  of  vegetables  by  the  use  of  copper  or  /.'me,  the 
addition  of  antiseptics,  such  as  salicylic  acid  and  sulphurous  acid,  to  secure  preserva- 
tion, while  the  latter  embrace  lead  and  tin  and  other  accidental  contaminating  agents. 
The  investigations,  while  showing  the  wholesale  character  of  the  sophistications,  does 
not  establish  the  presence  of  these  agents  in  toxic  quantities,  although  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  continuous  use  of  some  of  the  brands  must  be  not  only  deleterious  but 
dangerous.  The  advised  course  is  for  the  State  to  icquire  all  such  foods  to  be  dis- 
tinctly labeled  with  the  name  and  quantity  of  the  sophisticating  agent.  '1  his  is  not 
likely  to  occur,  no  matter  how  impoitant  it  may  be,  as  a  government  which  does  not 
care  to  know  tne  composition  of  proprietary  medicines,  and  quack  cancer  and  con- 
sumption cures,  is  not  likely  to  push  the  pure  food  demand. 
II 


I/O  FOOD. 

a  canned  product  suspected  of  containing  deleterious  agents,  a 
portion  of  the  filtrate  may  be  treated  with  hydrogen  sulphid 
and  the  solid  portion  of  the  food  fed  to  an  animal ;  in  the 
absence  of  metallic  poison,  the  presence  of  an  alkaloidal  poison 
may  be  established  by  the  induction  of  symptoms  in  the  animal 
identical  with  those  found  in  man. 

Preserved  foods  are  foods  in  which  decomposition  is  pre- 
vented or  retarded  by  the  addition  of  sugar,  oil,  salt,  etc.;  of  the 
first  group,  fruits  are  examples ;  of  the  second,  sardines  ;  of  the 
third,  salted  meats,  etc.  As  a  rule,  they  are  wholesome  and 
nutritious,  depending  almost  entirely  upon  the  quality  prior  to 
the  preserving  and  the  preservants  used.  Sugar  and  candied 
fruits,  jellies,  etc.,  belong  to  this  group.  So  far  as  known,  they 
are  usually  pure,  provided  the  process  has  been  thorough, 
otherwise  decomposition  invariably  sets  in. 

Sterilized  Foods.  These  consist  of  foods  rendered  sterile 
by  thermal  or  chemical  germicides,  and  reinfection  prevented  by 
excluding  the  air,  as  in  sealing,  excluding  the  bacteria  by  means 
of  cotton  wool  closure  of  the  containers.  The  sterilization  is 
usually  accomplished  by  means  of  repeated  steaming  (thermal 
disinfection),  although  sulphurous  acid  has  been  found  of  some 
value.  Commercially  the  process  has  not  been  found  feasible, 
although  canned  foods  are  practically  sterilized. 

Refrigerated  Foods.  Preservation  of  foods  by  cold,  either 
natural  or  artificial,  has  assumed  astounding  commercial  magni- 
tude. Dressed  meat  is  now  shipped  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
continent,  and  even  across  the  ocean,  in  chilled  containers,  the 
extremely  low  temperature  being  maintained  with  great  exact- 
itude by  means  of  ice  machines  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
Eggs,  butter,  meats  including  game  and  fowls,  also  fruits  and 
vegetables,  are  kept  for  months  by  this  process.  Occasionally 
the  preservation  is  favored  by  a  slight  salting.  If  properly  ap- 
plied the  process  itself  does  not  threaten  either  the  nutritive  value 
nor  the  healthfulness  of  the  foods.  Great  danger  lies  in  irregular 
temperatures  or  a  temperature  not  sufficiently  low,  and  in  the 
faulty  ventilation  of  the  compartments  and  poor  condition  of  the 
foods  prior  to  the  attempted  refrigeration.  So  far  as  known,  no 
evil  consequences  have  been  observed  as  proven  to  arise  from 
foods  which  have  been  subjected  to  refrigeration. 


AROMATIC    BEVERAGES — TEA.  1/1 

Tea.  Tea  consists  of  the  dry  leaves  of  a  plant,  indigenous  in 
Japan,  China,  India,  and  Ceylon.  The  varieties  of  tea  differ 
somewhat,  depending  upon  the  country  from  which  the  variety 
comes,  also  the  stage  of  growth  at  which  the  leaf  was  picked 
and  the  treatment  of  the  leaf  after  picking.  The  active  principle 
in  tea  is  them,  an  alkaloid  of  which  the  leaves  yield  from  1.15  to 
1.5  per  cent.  Thein  exists  in  the  leaves  in  combination  with  a 
tannic  acid  of  which  from  12  to  23  per  cent,  will  be  found  pres- 
ent. The  effects  of  tea  upon  the  digestion  are  largely  depend- 
ent upon  the  quantity  of  tannic  acid  which  it  contains.  Samples 
of  tea  which  yield  more  than  15.5  per  cent,  of  tannin  should  not 
be  used  as  a  beverage,  and  the  more  nearly  the  per  cent,  of 
tannin  approaches  12  per  cent.,  the  better  the  tea.  Tea  contains 
a  small  quantity  of  ethereal  oils,  but  not  in  sufficient  amount  to 
merit  consideration.  As  a  rule,  the  higher-priced  fine  China 
teas  yield  relatively  a  smaller  amount  of  tannin  than  the  Indian 
varieties. 

Tea  is  a  stimulant,  a  quality  dependent  upon  the  quantity  of 
thein  present.  Tea  relieves  hunger,  lessens  the  sense  of  fatigue, 
and  seems  to  increase  the  power  of  endurance.  If  taken  in 
excess  during  or  after  meals,  the  tannin  may  interfere  with  the 
digestive  processes,  by  precipitating  the  digestive  ferments.  Tea 
should  be  administered  in  the  form  of  an  infusion,  quickly  drawn 
and  containing  about  five  parts  of  the  dry  leaves  to  one  hundred 
parts  of  boiling  water.  The  green  tea  is  preferable  to  the  black 
tea. 

Tea  adulteration  consists  largely  in  the  recoloi  ing  of  exhausted 
leaves  by  the  use  of  powdered  catechu,  with  or  without  the 
addition  of  gum  or  starch.  It  is  said  that  the  Chinese  add  mag- 
netic oxid  of  iron  and  occasionally  sand  to  the  tea  ;  the  latter 
ingredient  may  be  suspected  when  the  ash  rises  above  six  per 
cent.,  while  catechu  and  starch  may  be  recognized  under  the 
microscope  by  moistening  the  powder  on  a  glass  slide  with  a 
small  quantity  of  glycerin.  Iron  may  be  detected  by  dissolving 
the  powder  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  treating  the  solu- 
tion with  ferricyanid  of  potassium.  In  old  tea,  acari,  fungi,  and 
bacteria  may  be  found.  The  percentage  of  thein  may  be 
obtained  by  exhausting  the  leaves  with  boiling  water,  filtering, 
adding  a  solution  of  subacetate  of  lead,  again  filtering,  treating 


I  - 2  FOOD. 

with  hydrosulphuric  acid,  and  removing  the  excess  of  lead,  again 
filtering  and  evaporating  the  filtrate  short  of  dryness  ;  add  a  trace 
of  ammonia  and  more  water,  filter  through  animal  charcoal,  to 
decolorize;  the  filtrate  is  then  evaporated  slowly  until  crystalliza- 
tion begins,  when  the  evaporation  is  continued  on  a  tared  filter 
in  an  oven  at  a  low  temperature;  by  weighing  the  residue  the 
percentage  of  thein  may  be  readily  obtained. 

Coffee.  Coffee  used  as  a  beverage  consists  of  the  fruit  of 
Coffca  arabica.  The  seeds  are  roasted  at  a  temperature  of  from 
175  to  200°  C.,  which  converts  the  sugar  into  caramel  and 
develops  the  aroma  by  bringing  out  the  volatile  aromatic  pro- 
ducts. The  heat  also  engenders  certain  gaseous  materials 
which  increase  the  size  of  the  berry  while  the  driving  off  of  the 
water  diminishes  its  weight.  By  reason  of  the  transient  charac- 
ter of  the  aroma,  coffee  should  be  freshly  roasted,  and  ground  only 
when  ready  for  use,  although,  if  tinned  in  small  packages,  it  may 
be  preserved  indefinitely.  It  is  not  probable  that  coffee  acts  upon 
tin  as  was  once  supposed.  In  the  composition  of  coffee  we  find 
caffein,  an  alkaloid  identical  with  thein,  combined  with  caffeic  and 
tannic  acid,  the  latter  much  less  in  quantity  than  in  tea  ;  unlike 
tea,  it  is  probable  that  the  physiological  effects  of  coffee  are 
largely  due  to  the  ethereal  oils  present  as  well  as  to  the  caffein. 
The  percentage  of  the  alkaloid  in  coffee  is  very  much  less  than 
in  tea,  on  an  average  about  one-half. 

While  tea  is  usually  taken  as  an  infusion,  and  in  the  most  parts  of 
Europe,  coffee  as  well,  Dujardin-Beaumetz  maintains  that  the  de- 
coction is  preferable,  as  it  preserves  the  nutritive,  stimulant,  and 
tonic  effects,  and  lessens  the  manifestations  usually  observed  in 
the  nervous  system.  A  mixture  of  a  decoction  and  infusion  is  pre- 
ferable and  may  be  made  in  the  following  manner  :  Boiling  water 
is  poured  over  the  coffee,  and  after  standing  for  about  five  minutes, 
is  drawn  off;  more  water  is  added  to  the  coffee,  which  is  now  boiled 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes;  the  decoction  thus  made  is  strained  off 
and  added  to  the  previously  prepared  infusion.  For  each  meal 
200  grains,  or  about  a  heaping  tablespoonful,  of  ground  coffee 
should  be  allowed  for  each  individual.  For  soldiers  on  the 
march  this  should  be  increased  about  one-third.  Like  tea,  coffee 
diminishes  the  sense  of  fatigue  and  apparently  augments  the 
muscular  activitv.  It  stimulates  the  heart,  increases  the  secre- 


COFFEE.  1-3 

tions  of  the  kidney  and  of  the  skin,  increases  the  excretion  of 
urea  and  probably  to  a  very  slight  degree  raises  the  temperature. 

In  the  selection  of  coffee,  that  variety  possessing  the  most 
agreeable  aroma  after  roasting  is  to  be  preferred.  The  micro- 
scope readily  detects  adulteration  in  coffee,  the  histology  of  the 
bean  being  strikingly  characteristic.  The  tissue  of  the  berry  is 
stroma-like,  the  interstices  containing  angular  masses  and  oil 
globules.  It  is  probable  that  in  this  country  the  most  extensive 
adulteration  of  coffee  is  by  the  addition  of  artificial  coffee,  made 
by  browning  a  compressed  bean,  made  in  imitation  of  the  coffee 
berry,  from  earth  and  corn  or  wheat  flour.  The  imitation  berry 
possesses  a  much  higher  specific  gravity  and  on  fracturing  presents 
an  entirely  different  surface  from  the  coffee  bean  ;  if  thrown  into 
water  it  rapidly  disintegrates.  It  increases  enormously  the  per- 
centage of  ash,  and  where  ground  in  with  the  coffee,  the  ash 
may  reach  as  high  as  10  to  12  per  cent.  The  chicory  berry  is 
commonly  used  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee  and  may  be  readily 
detected  by  the  microscope.  The  chicory  infusion  is  of  a  specific 
gravity  from  1018  to  1020,  while  coffee  ranges  between  iooS  and 
1OI2.  The  berry  sinks  immediately  in  water,  while  coffee  floats 
for  a  short  time.  Coffee  yields  about  4  per  cent,  ash,  four-fifths 
of  which  is  soluble  in  water,  while  chicory  affords  five  per  cent, 
of  ash,  only  one-third  of  which  is  soluble.  Chicory  contains 
from  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  sugar,  while  roasted  coffee  rarely  con- 
tains more  than  one  per  cent.  The  additions  of  cereals  and 
starches  may  be  readily  detected  by  testing  with  iodin  for  the 
presence  of  starch. 

Coffee  is  sometimes  made  from  so.-called  extract  or  essence, 
but  a  good  quality  of  coffee  extract  or  essence  is  at  present  not 
a  commercial  commodity.  The  temptation  to  adulterate  and  the 
facility  for  detecting  such  adulteration  are  so  out  of  proportion 
that  we  have  little  hope  for  advance  in  this  direction. 

Alcoholic  Beverages.  In  considering  alcoholic  beverages 
one  is  confronted  on  the  threshold  by  the  question,  widely  dis- 
cussed by  physiologists,  as  to  whether  alcohol  is  a  food.  Lpon 
this  subject  physiologists  are  divided,  many  maintaining  that 
alcohol  passes  through  the  system  without  being  utilized  as  a 
food,  merely  acting  as  a  stimulant  in  the  same  sense  as  many 
medicaments  ;  another  group  classify  alcohol  as  among  the  easily 


1/4  FOOD. 

available  foods,  maintaining  that  by  oxidation  the  alcohol  is  con- 
verted into  carbon  compounds.  One  group  maintains  that  it 
hastens  tissue  oxidation,  and  the  other  that  it  retards  tissue  waste 
by  undergoing  oxidation  itself.  Without  discussing  this  matter 
it  seems  not  improbable  that  the  action  of  alcohol  is  dependent 
largely  upon  the  quantity  ingested,  and  the  difficulty  which  prac- 
tically presents  itself  is  the  danger  of  its  abuse.  Evidence  is 
not  wanting  to  prove  that  the  abuse  far  exceeds  in  detriment  the 
possible  advantages  which  may  arise  from  its  indiscriminate 
application  as  a  food.  Like  all  other  stimulants  its  over-stimu- 
lation leads  to  exhaustion,  and  its  good  qualities  are  thus  imper- 
iled by  its  abuse.  Unlike  other  stimulants,  over-stimulation  is, 
to  a  large  majority  of  mankind,  a  pleasant  and  exhilarating  sen- 
sation, and  therein  lies  the  danger. 

As  a  food,  Yeo,  in  sympathy  with  Parkes  and  others,  believes 
that  the  minimum  amount  of  alcohol,  whether  in  form  of  spirits, 
wine,  or  beer,  which  should  be  taken  by  a  healthy  ad-ult,  should 
not  exced  one  and  one-half  fluidounces  in  the  twenty-four  hours.- 
In  this  amount  it  is  believed  to  be  a  stimulant  to  the  circulatory, 
respiratory,  and  nervous  systems,  increasing  the  appetite  and 
facilitating  digestiom  In  any  excess  of  this,  alcohol  leads  to  the 
development  of  catarrhal  and  fibroid  changes  in  the  digestive 
organs,  more  particularly  the  stomach  and  liver,  thus  altering  the 
character  and  diminishing  the  quantity  of  the  secretions  upon 
which  digestion  so  much  depends.  Alcohol  leads  to  permanent 
alterations  iiv  nervous  matter,  more  particularly  that  of  the  central 
organs,  the  brain,  and  spinal  cord. 

Dujardin-Beaumetz  points  out  that  the  higher  the  atomic 
weight,  the  more  toxic  the  alcohol,  in  support  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing members  of  the  group  may  be  adduced  : — 

Metliylic  alcohol, CH4O 


Kthylic 
1'ropyiic 
Hutylic 
A  my  lie 
Caproic 


C,II60  or  CII40  +  (CH,) 
.  CSI18()  or  <JH40  +  2  (CHS) 
.  C4I!|0O  or  CH4<)  +  3(CH2) 
.  CjH,./)  or  <JH4()  +4(CH7) 
.  C,H14OorCH40  +  5(CH2) 


("  ardent  spirits  ")  are  distilled  fermented  juices  from 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  cereals.  Of  the  fruits,  apple,  grape, 
cherry,  and  peach  are  most  commonly  used  ;  of  the  vegetables, 


ALCOHOLIC    BEVERAGES.  175 

potatoes,  although  none  of  this  group  are  in  frequent  use  ;  of  the 
cereals,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  nini/.e,  and  rice  are  mostly  used, 
wheat  and  corn  in  this  country,  barley  and  rye  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  The  composition  of  spirits  is  fairly  constant  in  the 
quantity  of  alcohol,  about  50  per  cent.,  which  they  contain,  com- 
bined with  various  aromatics,  depending  upon  the  source. 

The  alcohol  in  spirits  may  be  contaminated  by  the  presence 
of  amyl  alcohol  or  fusel  oil,  a  highly  injurious  and  poisonous 
compound.  Bartholow,  in  accord  with  Richardson,  believes  that 
amyl  alcohol  is,  probably,  the  most  active  of  the  group  in  the 
production  of  delirium  tremens,  and  remarks  that  "  amyl  alco- 
hol causes  tremors  and  muscular  twitching  identical  with  the 
tremors  observed  in  the  human  subject  during  the  alcoholic  dis- 
ease known  as  delirium  tremens." 

IVincs.  The  term  wine  is  applied  to  the  fermented  juice  of  the 
grape,  for  which  it  was  once  exclusively  used,  but  at  present  it 
includes  the  juices  of  many  of  the  saccharin  fruits,  including 
the  orange,  gooseberry,  currant,  cherry,  etc.  The  bouquet  of 
wines  is  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  ethers  and  extractive 
matters.  CEnanthic  ether  is  most  constantly  present.  The  col- 
oring of  wines  is  dependent  upon  the  fruit  which  is  used  also 
upon  whether  the  skins  are  extracted  as  well  as  the  pulp  of  the 
fruit.  The  sweetness  in  wines  is  dependent  upon  the  presence 
of  saccharin  matters,  while  the  exhaustion  of  these  by  the  abun- 
dant production  of  alcohol  at  their  expense  gives  rise  to  acidity. 
Besides  the  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  wines  contain  sugar  and 
tannin,  essential  oils,  coloring  matters,  salts,  acids,  and  extrac- 
tives. The  percentage  of  alcohol  in  wines  varies  within  enor- 
mous limits.  Sherry  comes  highest,  with  over  20  per  cent,  of 
alcohol,  and  the  Rhine  wines  lowest,  with  from  five  to  six  per 
cent.  The  most  pleasant  wines,  and  as  a  rule  those  having  the 
best  quality,  rarely  exceed  ten  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  alcohol. 

Beer,  Ale,  and  Porter.  The  so-called  malt  liquors  are  manu- 
factured from  malted  grain,  usually  barley.  The  malting  pro- 
cess is  accomplished  by  allowing  the  grain  to  germinate  at  a 
suitable  temperature  in  the  presence  of  moisture.  During  ger- 
mination diastase  is  produced  which  converts  the  starch  of  the 
grain  into  dextrin  and  sugar.  The  germination  process  is  then 
stopped  by  heating,  the  malt  is  dried  either  at  a  low  temperature, 


1/6  FOOD. 

/ 

1 20°  F.  to  140°  F.,  in  which  instance  a  pale  malt  is  produced,  or 
at  a  high  temperature  by  which  the  malt  is  blackened  ;  the  latter 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  darker  members  of  the  series, 
such  as  porter  and  stout.  In  the  manufacture  of  beer,  an  infu- 
sion is  made  of  the  malted  grain,  to  which  is  added  hops;  the 
mixture  is  then  boiled,  cooled,  and  placed  in  vats  where  alcoholic 
fermentation  is  established  by  means  of  yeast.  The  percentage 
of  alcohol  in  the  beer  is  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  con- 
verted starch  in  the  infusion  or  "  wort "  and  the  extent  to  which 
fermentation  has  been  allowed  to  proceed.  The  coloring  of  the 
beer  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  malt  which  is  used.  The 
composition  of  beer  as  given  by  Chapman  is  as  follows  : — 

Water, 947.00 

Alcohol 4.50 

Dextrin,  glucose,  etc.,     . 41.40 

Nitrogenized  substances, 5 .26 

Mineral  salts, 1.48 

Bitter  principle  not  determined, 


The  percentage  of  alcohol  varies  within  rather  wide  limits  ; 
thus  in  the  heavier  English  beers  as  much  as  12  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  may  be  present ;  in  the  lighter  and  more  pleasant  beers 
the  percentage  will  range  from  i  to  6. 

The  acidity  of  beer  is  due  to  the  presence  of  acetic  acid,  aug- 
mented by  lactic,  malic,  and  gallic  acids  in  small  quantities.  The 
malt  extract,  which  includes  the  dextrin,  glucose,  etc.,  varies 
from  5  to  14  per  cent. ;  it  is  highest  in  porter,  to  which  a  large 
amount  of  nutritive  value  is  attributed.  The  amount  of  car- 
bonic acid  present  is  dependent  upon  the  temperature  as  well  as 
upon  the  brewing,  packing,  and  shipping;  thus  at  a  low  temper- 
ature more  carbonic  acid  will  be  contained  than  in  high.  Draft 
or  keg  beer  will  have  a  higher  percentage  than  bottled  beer. 
This  is  brought  about  in  keg  beer  by  adding  bicarbonate  of  soda 
just  before  the  bung  is  driven  ;  the  acetic  and  lactic  acids  in  the 
beer  combine  with  the  sodium  and  liberate  the  carbonic  acid 
which  remains  in  the  beer,  constituting  what  is  known  as  the 
"  head."  Beer  differs  from  spirits  and  also  from  wines  in  that 
it  is  not  only  a  stimulant  and  tonic,  but  contains  nutritive  prin- 
ciples in  the  shape  of  sugar,  dextrin,  etc.  It  seems  not  improb- 


DIET.  I// 

able  that  the  ferment  in  beer  assists  in  the  digestion  of  starches. 
The  stomachic  tonics  are  the  light  beers  containing  the  largest 
quantity  of  bitter  principle  and  the  smallest  quantity  of  extrac- 
tives. The  greatest  amount  of  concentrated  nourishment  is  found 
in  the  beers  containing  the  largest  proportion  of  extractives  with 
a  relatively  small  proportion  of  alcohol.  To  the  latter  group  be- 
longs porter.  The  adulteration  of  malted  liquors  is  probably- 
most  extensive.  Malt  of  the  lowest  quality  is  often  used,  the 
diastatic  properties  but  poorly  developed,  and  sugar  added  in 
order  to  supply  material  for  fermentation,  or  rice  may  be  used 
to  supplant  the  barley.  Instead  of  hops  as  the  bitter  principle, 
aloes,  picric  acid,  and  picrotoxin  are  used.  The  coloring  is 
accomplished  by  caramel  and  the  foam  by  glycerin  or  soap  bark. 

Koumiss,  a  fermented  beverage  introduced  from  Tartary,  where 
it  has  long  been  known.  Originally  it  was  made  from  the  milk 
of  mares,  but  as  introduced  in  this  country  and  in  England  is 
made  from  cows'  milk,  the  fermentation  depending  upon  the 
breaking  up  of  the  lactose  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid. 

Kefir  is  very  closely  allied  to  koumiss,  and  is  said  to  contain  less 
alcohol  than  koumiss  with  equal  nutritive  value.  They  are  both 
used  largely  in  the  dietetic  treatment  of  disease,  and  while  but 
slightly  stimulant  are  rich  in  nutritive  matters,  easily  digested, 
readily  assimilable,  and  usually  well  borne  by  the  most  delicate 
stomach.  Recently  there  has  been  introduced  a  dry  koumiss, 
under  the  name  of  "  koumissgen."  It  is  said  to  be  made  from 
milk,  predigested  and  evaporated,  the  "  head  "  of  carbonic  acid 
being  secured  by  effervescing  salts  intermixed  in  the  dry  or 
anhydrous  state.  It,  of  course,  contains  no  alcohol. 

DIET. 

Diet  may  be  defined  as  a  systematic  arrangement  or  selection 
of  food ;  in  other  words,  a  practical  application  of  the  informa- 
tion already  given  in  the  general  consideration  of  food. 

The  salient  factors  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  diet 
are,  age,  se.r,  climate,  occupation,  appetite,  administration,  cooking, 
digestibility,  idiosyncrasy  and  quantity  demanded. 

Age.  Prior  to  the  second  year,  the  food  should  consist  ex- 
clusively of  milk,  after  this  period  the  farinaceous  foods  should 
be  added.  The  quantity  may  be  based  upon  the  relative  weight 


1/8  FOOD. 

and  compared  in  food  values  with  a  little  higher  diet  than  the 
subsistence  diet  laid  down.  The  alkaloidal  and  ardent  beverages 
should  be  interdicted.  After  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  year  the 
proportion  of  fats  may  be  increased.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  for  young  adults,  at  labor,  a  more  generous  diet  will  be 
demanded,  proportionately,  than  for  an  adult,  as  they  must  supply 
not  only  force,  but  construct  tissue  simultaneously. 

Sex.  There  is  little  ground  for  believing  that  there  is  any 
difference,  except  a  relative  one,  between  the  two  sexes,  pro- 
vided an  equal  amount  of  labor  is  exacted.  It  would  seem 
probable,  however,  that  by  reason  of  the  catamenia  the  female 
will  require  a  more  generous  diet  than  the  male,  in  proportion  to 
her  weight  and  the  work  done. 

Climate.  An  important  feature  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  the 
relation  of  external  temperature  to  the  amount  of  heat  which 
must  be  generated  by  the  organism.  Thus  in  polar  latitudes 
with  extremely  low  temperatures,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order 
to  produce  sufficient  heat  to  maintain  life  and  restore  that 
lost  by  radiation,  to  use  large  quantities  of  carbonaceous 
food,  the  oxidation  of  which  will  produce  the  necessary 
degree  of  heat;  on  the  other  hand,  in  warm  climates,  the 
surrounding  temperature  being  relatively  high,  food  which 
contains  but  little  carbon  will  be  demanded;  hence,  in  the 
Arctic  regions,  the  inhabitants  subsist  on  oily  foods  derived 
largely  from  the  whale,  while  in  the  tropical  climates,  fruits  and 
similar  foods  containing  less  carbon  are  sufficient.  It  is  also  to 
be  observed  that  changes  in  season  with  the  accompanying 
changes  in  temperature  demand  also  variations  in  diet.  Thus 
in  winter  the  food  will  more  readily  approach  the  constant  diet 
of  the  extremely  cold  latitudes,  and  in  summer  that  of  the  warm 
countries,  and  hence,  as  Chapman  remarks,  fats  and  sugar  will 
be  more  needed  by  the  system  in  January  than  in  July. 

Occupation.  In  a  previous  chapter  attention  has  been  drawn 
to  the  difference  in  the  exercise  demanded  by  those  engaged  in 
active  physical  exertion  and  those  living  a  more  exacting 
psychical  life.  The  kind  and  amount  of  food  will,  no  doubt,  in- 
fluence to  a  great  degree  the  activity  in  one  or  the  other  direc- 
tion. Where  great  muscular  activity  has  to  be  manifested  and 
abundance  of  force  utilized,  a  carbonaceous  diet  will  be  required 


APPETITE.  179 

to  supply  the  needs  in  that  direction,  while  if  muscular  exercise 
and  physical  activity  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  a  small 
quantity  of  carbon  will  be  necessary  as  representing  little  more 
than  that  utilized  in  carrying  on  the  functional  activity  of  the 
organism.  Brain  workers  have  long  been  known  to  indulge 
freely  in  the  use  of  alkaloidal  and  alcoholic  beverages,  prefer- 
ring the  alkaloidal,  as  it  seems  better  adapted  to  their  pur- 
pose. 

Appetite.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  appetite  is  an 
acquired  quality.  It  is  cultivatable,  and  from  its  dictates  civilized 
man,  irrespective  of  dietaries,  selects  the  food  upon  which  he 
hopes  to  maintain  life.  It  is  largely  the  result  of  habit  and  may 
be  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another.  No  dietary 
can  be  considered  as  desirable  where  appetite  is  ignored,  and 
the  more  successful  the  efforts  to  cultivate  an  appetite  in  har- 
mony with  properly  selected  scientific  food,  the  greater  will 
be  the  advances  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  and  the  mainte- 
nance of  normal  digestive  functions.  Appetite  may  be  at  wide 
variance  with  recognized  dietetic  laws,  and  such  variance  not 
be  conducive  to  the  development  of  disease.  Not  infrequently 
it  will  be  wise  to  follow  the  dictate  of  appetite,  provided  it  be 
formulated  upon  an  intelligent  basis  and  not  upon  a  mere  tem- 
porary or  passing  caprice  developed  from  the  inner  consciousness 
by  some  process  of  suggestion.  Appetite  demands  variety  in  food, 
and  for  this  reason  the  potent  elements  of  each  group  of  foods 
may  be  made  to  alternate  with  each  other  without  any  detriment 
to  the  theory  involved. 

Administration.  The  time  and  method  of  administering  food 
have  received  consideration  from  many  dietetic  writers  ;  each  one 
has  seen  fit  to  suggest  views  evidently  in  accord  with  his  own  feel- 
ing in  the  matter.  It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  habit  is 
the  most  influential  factor  in  determining  the  intervals  between 
the  meals  and  the  time  and  distribution  of  the  quantities  utilized 
for  food.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  the  more  digestible  the 
food,  the  shorter  the  intervals  should  be  between  the  meals. 
The  habits  of  countries  have  materially  influenced  the  hours  for 
taking  food,  as  has  also  to  a  certain  extent  the  climate  ;  thus,  in 
warmer  climates,  the  mid-day  meal,  taken  during  the  heated 
hours  of  the  day,  is  usually  the  frugal  one,  and  the  evening  re- 


I  SO  FOOD. 

past  the  more  generous,  while  in  the  temperate  regions  the 
reverse  holds  true.  Dr.  Edmund  Smith  recommends  as  a 
physiological  diet  the  following,  which  he  distributes  in  three 
meals  : — 

Oirban,      Nitrogen,          Ctirtf»iaceous,        Kitro$euous, 
grs.  grs.  ozs.  azs. 

For  breakfast,     .    .  1500  70  6.62  1.04 

Fur  dinner,     .    .    .  1800  90  7.85  1.34 

For  supper,     .    .    .  looo  40  4-25  °-59 

Total,  ....  4300  200  18.99  2  97 

Individual  tastes  and  habits  must  be  consulted  in  considering 
the  distribution  of  meals,  and,  independent  of  fixed  and  regular 
hours,  hunger,  like  thirst,  is  a  demand  which  in  the  healthy  in- 
dividual is  always  to  be  respected,  and  never  allowed  to  pass 
into  that  point  known  as  insatiable.  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  dilated  stomachs  and  digestive  troubles  are  en- 
couraged, even  actually  produced,  by  gorging  with  enormous 
quantities  at  regular  intervals,  in  order  to  maintain  the  strength 
during  a  given  length  of  time. 

Cooking.  For  civilized  man,  cooking  is  demanded.  The  in- 
fluence which  cooking  bears  upon  food  can  hardly  be  estimated. 
Its  digestibility,  its  nutritive  equivalent,  its  potential  energy,  are 
all  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  process.  On  the  average,  foods 
in  the  fresh  state  lose  weight  by  the  cooking  process,  the  loss 
amounting,  in  some  cases  to  twenty  or  thirty  per  cent.  The 
process  renders  mastication  more  easily  accomplished,  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  favors  digestion  by  rendering  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  food  more  rapid  and  complete.  This  is  not,  however, 
always  the  case,  as  Beaumont  has  shown  that  raw  pork  digests 
in  three  hours,  while  roast  pork  will  require  from  five  to  five 
and  one-half  hours.  Roast  potato  maybe  digested  in  two  hours, 
while  a  boiled  potato  will  require  three.  Scientific  cooking  is 
needed  nowadays,  more  than  the  nicely  defined  dietaries.  The 
belief  that  so  many  grains  of  nitrogen  and  so  many  grains  of 
carbon  are  all  that  is  necessary  is  widely  at  variance  with  the 
true  condition  of  affairs. 

Meats  should  always  be  cooked,  by  reason  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  parasites  which  may  be  present;  nothing  but  efficient 
cooking  insures  their  destruction.  Trichina;  present  an  example 
in  which  cooking  must  be  thorough  in  order  to  secure  their  de- 


DIGESTIBILITY.  l8l 

struction.  If  meat  shows  a  blood-red  color,  it  is  probable  that  a 
temperature  of  over  135°  F.  has  not  been  reached,  and  any  decree 
short  of  160°  F.  cannot  be  depended  upon.  Where  the  possibility 
of  a  vegetable  parasite  is  to  be  met,  no  temperature  short  of 
212°  F.  can  be  relied  upon.  Abbott  has  recently  presented  the 
dangers  arising  from  washing  vegetables  in  infected  waters  and 
then  not  cooking  them  ;  so  that  where  the  water  supply  is  of  a 
suspicious  character,  or  known  to  be  infected,  the  demands  for 
efficient  cooking  are  accentuated. 

Of  the  animal  foods,  more  particularly  the  meats,  roasting,  or 
its  equivalent,  broiling,  probably  represent  the  best  forms  of 
cooking.  Boiling,  stewing  and  frying,  follow  in  the  order  named  ; 
the  latter,  in  not  a  few  cases,  lessens  and  retards  the  digestive 
process  by  saturating  the  meat  with  oil  which  is  but  little,  if  any, 
influenced  by  the  gastric  juice.  The  influence  of  cooking  upon 
the  digestibility  of  vegetables,  is  not  so  marked  as  in  animal 
foods.  The  palatability  of  both  is  greatly  increased  by  the  culin- 
ary art  and  appetite  sharpened  by  the  addition  of  seasoning 
and  condiments,  not  readily  introduced  after  the  cooking 
process. 

Digestibility.  The  importance  of  this  cannot  be  over-esti- 
mated. After  a  long  illness,  during  an  acute  febrile  attack  fol- 
lowing a  grave  surgical  operation,  after  a  prolonged  march  or  an 
exhausting  fast,  the  tide  of  life  may  hang  upon  the  rapid  and 
ready  assimilation  of  food.  It  goes  without  saying  that  foods 
requiring  the  least  mechanical  aid  in  digestion,  such  as  soups, 
broths,  and  allied  fluids,  will  most  rapidly  reach  the  circulation. 
In  no  small  number  of  these  cases  a  stimulant  is  demanded,  in 
order  that  its  immediate  action  may  bridge  over  the  period 
necessary  for  even  a  briefer  partial  digestion.  The  beef,  mutton 
and  chicken  broths,  and  teas  fill  the  requirement  more  or  less 
completely.  Milk  to  which  we  would  immediately  turn,  while 
fluid  before  ingestion,  soon  becomes  a  solid  in  the  stomach. 
That  this  can  be  partially  overcome  by  peptonizing  is  admitted, 
and  if  so  prepared  it  becomes  an  efficient  emergency  food.  Hot 
foods  assimilate  with  far  greater  rapidity  than  cold,  and,  where 
the  patient's  selection  permits,  are  to  be  preferred.  Milk  whey, 
wine  whey,  bouillon,  dilutions  of  concentrated  foods,  such  as 
meat  extracts  of  reputable  makers,  are  quickly  acting  stimulants 


1 82  FOOD. 

and  foods.  Next  to  these  and  similar  preparations  come  the 
farinaceous  aqueous  solutions  or  suspended  foods,  both  starchy 
and  saccharin.  Barley,  gruel,  arrowroot,  oatmeal,  mixed  with 
the  liquid  animal  foods  enumerated  above  and  the  mixture 
afterwards  strained,  afford  readily  prepared  emergency  foods_ 
Koumys,  kefir,  and  similar  preparations  can  be  utilized. 

Idiosyncrasy.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  idiosyncrasy  plays 
an  important  part  in  individual  cases,  and  no  small  number  of 
cases  will  be  found  in  which  many  foods  considered  readily 
digestible  are  not  so,  and  vice  versa.  Under  this  head  we  also 
include  the  temperaments,  tissue  peculiarities,  which  we  identify 
as  the  gouty  and  rheumatic,  nervous  or  irritable,  etc.,  each  group 
requiring  a  variation  in  food  which  its  members  use.  The  un- 
expected effect  at  times  produced  by  some  foods  are  explainable 
only  by  this  peculiar  cryptogenic  principle.  Diarrhea  due  to 
eating  fruit,  gastritis  following  a  meal  containing  cabbage,  enter- 
algia  induced  by  coffee,  are  examples  illustrating  that  unexplain- 
able  factor,  personal  idiosyncrasy. 

Quantity.  The  quantity  of  food  demanded  by  the  organism 
maybe  calculated  either  upon  the  amount  of  work  done  or  upon 
the  excretions  as  already  stated,  work  done  being  estimated 
in  foot  tons,  that  is,  the  force  demanded  to  raise  one  ton  through 
a  given  number  of  feet  or  to  raise  a  given  number  of  tons  through 
one  foot,  the  one  being  equivalent  to  the  other.*  A  certain 
quantity  of  force  is  demanded  to  carry  on  functions  of  organic 
life,  such  as  respiration,  circulation,  digestion,  etc.  If  these 
could  be  accurately  estimated,  much  less  difficulty  would  be 
found  in  formulating  dietaries,  but  our  knowledge  of  the  de- 
manded quantities  of  force  utilized  in  the  vital  processes  is 
largely  theoretical.  It  is  presumed  that  about  2500  foot  tons 
are  required.  To  make  up  for  loss  in  radiation  and  by  other 
means,  it  is  estimated  that  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  food  force 
over  and  above  that  used  by  the  economy  is  available  for  work, 
and  hence,  in  order  to  obtain  a  given  number  of  foot  tons,  at 
least  five  times  the  number  of  foot  tons  must  be  supplied  in  the 
food.  Thus  to  furnish  400  foot  tons  of  actual  work  over  and 
above  the  vital  processes,  about  2600  foot  tons  must  be  allowed 

*  In  mechanics  the  force  demanded  to  raise  one  ton  one  foot  is  known  as  a  foul-ton. 


QUANTITY    REQUIRED.  183 

for  organic  life  and  2OOO  foot  tons  for  the  labor  desired,  ifoo 
foot  tons  being  demanded  above  the  quantity  which  will  be 
productive  as  work.  The  individual  capacity  for  converting  food 
into  work  will  vary  within  wide  limits,  a  well  developed  strong 
man,  under  favorable  circumstances,  being  able  to  accomplish 
about  600  foot  tons,  although  for  continuous  work  he  will  rarely 
be  able  to  exceed  437  foot  tons  per  diem.  Given  the  number  of 
foot  tons  desired  and  calculating  the  productive  work  with  the 
allowed  surplusage  demanded,  as  given  above,  the  groups  of 
food  as  already  given  may  be  calculated  to  afford  about  as 
follows:  I  ounce  of  proteids  (dry)  173  foot  tons;  i  ounce  of 
fat,  378  foot  tons;  I  ounce  of  sugar  or  starch,  135  foot  tons. 

While  the  above  may  be  considered  as  affording  a  fairly  reli- 
able clue,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  in  any  way  directing  an  accu- 
rate estimate.  Besides,  from  the  calculations  alone  no  proportion 
of  ingredients  is  given.  It  has  been  demonstrated  over  and  over 
again  that  a  diet  selected  from  one  food  group  alone  does  not 
meet  the  requirements  of  nature,  and  that  under  such  circum- 
stances an  excess  of  one  element  must  be  administered  in  order 
to  approach  the  demanded  supply  of  another.  In  order  to  meet 
this  objection,  recourse  is  had  to  a  study  of  excretion,  and  cal- 
culation made  to  supply  a  quantity  of  food  through  which  the 
processes  of  combustion  and  oxidation  will  replace  the  elements 
found  in  the  excreta.  Heat,  force,  and  function  are  but  expres- 
sions of  combustion,  the  food  supplying  the  elements  from  which 
all  are  elaborated. 

In  the  excreta  will  be  found  300  grs.  of  nitrogen  and  4600  grs. 
of  carbon  per  cliem,  a  proportion  of  about  i  of  nitrogen  to  15 
of  carbon.  It  would  therefore  appear,  theoretically,  that  food 
must  be  supplied  upon  the  basis  of  i  of  nitrogen  to  15  of  carbon, 
to  replace  those  elements  lost.  Not  only  has  this  ratio  been 
presumed  to  be  advantageous,  but  practical  dietaries  have  dem- 
onstrated its  utility. 

If  the  selection  of  food  was  made  purely  from  the  albuminates, 
e.g.,  meat,  46,000  grs.  would  afford  4600  grs.  of  carbon  and  1380 
grs.  of  nitrogen,  a  proportion  of  three  parts  of  carbon  to  one  of 
nitrogen.  Again,  if  the  food  be  selected  from  the  carbonaceous 
groups,  an  excess  of  carbon  will  be  present  equal  to,  if  not  ex- 
ceeding, 30  parts  of  carbon  to  i  of  nitrogen.  It  is,  therefore, 


184  FOOD. 

demanded  that  diet  shall  be  mixed ;   the  following  affording  an 
example  : — 

drains.  Grains. 

About   2   Ibs.  of  bread  contain C  4630  N  145 

•'       2+  Ibs.  of  meat  contain       C     463  N   154 

"     2^  Ibs.  of  bread-meat  contain C  5093  N  308 

or          C        15  N        I 

With  these  proportions  borne  in  mind  \ve  have  but  to  apply  the 
knowledge  of  force  demanded  in  order  to  calculate  food-tables 
or  dietaries.  Thus,  Wilson  gives,  as  estimated  by  Moleschott, 
Playfair,  Pettenkofer,  Parkes,  and  others,  the  following  : — 


WATER-FREE  SUBSTANCES  GIVEN  DAILY.          SUBSISTENX'B.  JKDINARI         ACTIVE  LABOR. 


Ounces  Avoir. 
Albuminates, 2.0 


Ounces  Avoir,  i  Ounces  Avoir. 
4-5  65 

3-5  40 


Fats, 0.5 

Carbohydrates, 12.0  14.0  17.0 

Salts,       0.5  i.o  1.3 


Total  water  free  foods, .  150 


It  is  probable  that  as  we  approach  active  exercise  or  work 
the  percentage  of  carbon  should  be  slightly  increased.  This  is 
partly  allowed  for  in  the  above  by  the  fats  in  ordinary  and  in 
active  labor  diets,  being  respectively  6.5  and  8  times  the  quan- 
tity given  for  a  subsistence  diet. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Water  is  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  demanded  by 
the  system  for  the  maintenance  of  life.  Chemically  pure,  it  is 
composed  of  two  elements,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  From  natural 
sources  chemically  pure  water  is  never  obtained  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  public  use. 

Source.  While  the  source  of  water  is  an  object  of  some  im- 
portance, it  is  not  often  a  matter  which  the  sanitarian  can  direct ; 
it  is  usually  obtained  from  one  of  the  following  sources: — 

Rain  Wafer.  Rain  water  is  collected,  as  a  rule,  from  roofs 
and,  on  board  ships,  from  sails  spread  expressly  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  a  soft  water,  and  while  at  first  it  would  appear  that  rain 
water  must  be  pure,  such  is  not  always  the  case.  In  its  descent 
it  may  have  absorbed  gases  or  carried  down  suspended  parti- 
cles, both  organic  and  inorganic,  in  sufficient  quantities  to  ren- 
der it  impure.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  in  manufactur- 
ing and  very  populous  districts.  Impurities  are  also  largely 
collected  from  roofs  in  the  shape  of  dissolved  metals  ;  hence 
the  advantage  of  slate  roofing  ;  the  excreta  of  birds,  soot  and 
dust,  vegetable  spores,  plant  life  in  all  its  forms,  including  bac- 
teria, may  thus  find  entrance.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  where 
it  is  desirable  to  use  rain  water  from  roofs,  the  first  gush  of 
water  should  be  rejected,  after  which  a  fairly  potable  water  may 
be  obtained. 

For  estimating  the  quantity  of  rain  water  from  a  given  roof, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  know  the  annual  rain  precipitation  and 
the  area  of  collecting  surface.  In  the  case  of  houses  this  can 
be  easily  calculated  by  measuring  the  exterior  walls,  as  the  roof 
pitch  does  not  influence  the  collecting  area.  Given  these  two 
points,  the  amount  of  water  supplied  may  be  readily  calculated  ; 
if  the  area  of  the  collecting  surface  in  square  feet  be  multiplied 
by  one-half  the  rainfall  in  inches,  the  result  will  give  the  amount 
of  water  in  gallons  with  an  error  of  about  four  per  cent. 
12  185 


1 86  WATER. 

Rain  water  is  usually  stored  in  cisterns  or  tanks  composed  of 
some  impermeable  and  insoluble  material,  for  example,  slate, 
masonry,  cemented  brick,  or  concrete;  slate  probably  affords 
the  best  cistern.  Iron  and  galvanized  iron  containing  no  lead 
may  be  used  for  storage  purposes.  Lead  and  galvanized  iron 
containing  lead  should  not  be  used.  Wood,  either  plain,  charred, 
or  pitched,  is  to  be  rejected,  as  sooner  or  later  it  becomes  a  source 
of  infection.  Cisterns  or  tanks  should  be  above  ground,  never 
under  ;  if  it  be  imperative  to  place  the  cistern  under  ground 
by  reason  of  excessively  cold  winters  which  freeze  surface 
cisterns,  the  container  should  be  constructed  of  masonry  or 
cement. 

Spring  Water.  \Yhere  the  spring  can  be  tapped  immediately 
at  its  source,  it  undoubtedly  affords  water  of  a  high  standard  of 
purity.  The  danger,  however,  from  pollution  is  always  immi- 
nent, for,  as  usually  arranged,  springs  afford  ample  opportunity 
for  the  ingress  of  surface  water. 

For  measuring  the  output  of  a  spring,  the  best  results  will  be 
obtained  by  receiving  the  water  in  a  vessel  of  known  capacity, 
which  may  be  ascertained,  of  course,  by  measuring  with  a 
standard  measure,  or  with  the  capacity  of  the  vessel  in  cubic 
feet,  it  may  be  brought  to  gallons  by  multiplying  by  7.48.  By 
noting  the  flow  during  a  given  time,  the  output  for  twenty-four 
hours  may  be  readily  estimated.  Should  the  spring  be  a  tidal 
spring,  two  measurements  will  be  necessary,  one  when  the  flow 
is  least  and  another  at  the  maximum,  the  calculation  being  based 
on  the  mean  flow  as  estimated  from  the  two  observations. 

Surface  icafcr  includes  river  water,  the  upland  water  of  the 
English  writer,  and  shallow  well  water;  the  latter  will  be  appar- 
ent when  we  remember  that  as  much  as  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the 
earth's  crust  drain,  in  most  localities,  the  entire  surface  water. 
Surface  water  is,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  highly  polluted, 
and  especially  is  this  true  where  it  is  collected  from  areas  hav- 
ing abundant  habitations.  In  rivers  utilized  to  supply  towns  and 
cities,  when  they  receive  sewage  and  manufacturing  refuse,  the 
contamination  of  the  water  varies  to  the  extent  of  the  materials 
which  may  be  allowed  to  mix  with  it.  The  idea  that  water 
purifies  itself  by  oxidation  is  true  to  a  limited  extent,  but  where 
the  impurity  is  a  pathogenic  organism,  the  effect  of  oxida- 


SURFACE    AND    WELL   WATER.  1  87 

tion  cannot  be  assuring,  and  water  receiving  infected  sewer- 
age remains  infected,  but  little  altered  except  by  dilution  and 
the  temporary  effects  of  sedimentation. 

In  estimating  the  water  output  of  a  stream  where  it  is  possi- 
ble, engineers  use  the  weir  gauge.  The  weir  gauge  consists  of 
a  plank  set  on  edge  and  maintained  perfectly  level  by  means 
of  a  plumb  line  or  spirit  level.  In  this  plank,  a  rectangular  notch 
one  foot  in  width  is  cut,  and  the  difference  of  level  above  and 
below  the  weir  may  be  estimated  by  measuring  the  depth  of  the 
water  which  is  flowing  over  the  notch,  and  from  a  given  table 
the  calculations  estimated.* 

A  very  convenient  method  for  measuring  the  supply  of  water 
from  an  ordinary  stream  consists  in  obtaining  the  surface 
velocity  by  throwing  a  chip  or  suitable  material  on  the  surface 
at  some  point  where  the  current  is  constant  and  not  affected  by 
winds  at  the  time  of  the  experiment,  and  noting  the  length  of 
time  which  it  requires  for  this  fragment  to  pass  over  a  given 
space.  This  will  give  the  surface  velocity;  multiply  four-fifths 
of  this,  the  approximate  stream  velocity,  by  the  sectional  area  ; 
the  result  will  be  the  yield  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  presuming, 
of  course,  that  the  initial  surface  velocity  be  reduced  to  a  second 
as  the  unit.  Cubic  feet  may  be  reduced  to  gallons  by  multiply- 
ing by  7.48.  If  the  quantity  of  water  be  not  too  large,  it  may 
be  conducted  through  a  trough  of  known  dimensions,  and  by 
obtaining  the  velocity,  the  output  may  be  readily  calculated. 

Well  Water.  This  includes  deep  wells,  driven  or  bored  wells, 
and  artesian  wells  ;  the  shallow  well  water  is  to  be  regarded  as 
surface  water.  Wells  sufficiently  deep  to  pass  through  an  im- 
pervious stratum  to  a  water-bearing  stratum  below,  or  wells 
cemented  to  a  point  below  the  possible  entrance  of  surface 

*  Discharge  of  Water  Over  a  IVeir  One  Foot  in  Length.  If  the  weir  is  more  or 
less  than  one  foot,  multiply  the  quantity  in  the  table  opposite  the  given  depth  by  the 
length  of  the  weir  in  feet  or  decimals  of  a  foot.  Thus,  if  the  weir  measures  one 
foot,  and  the  depth  of  the  water  falling  over  be  two  inches,  the  delivery  is  read  at 
once,  viz.,  13.63  cubic  feet,  or  84.9  gallons  per  minute.  ^Im 


Depth  falling  over,  Discharge  per  Depth  falling  orn  ,  Discfi.i  W  fer 

inches.                                  minute.  inches.  minute. 

}/2                       1.70  cub.  ft.  2  jj  19-"°  cul)-  ft- 

I  '  4.82      "        "  }  2C.02      "        " 

1  Y2  8.84     "        "  3   }l  33-22     "        " 

2  13.63    "      "  4  40.71    ' 

—  •'  Sixth  Report  of  the  AYrrr  Pollution  Commission." 


WATER. 


FIG.  52 


Pi. AS     DP 

cr 


DFKI>    WELL.     A.     Ground 
str.nuni. 
stone    w-.\'. 
lls  with  c 


C.  Brick    wall.       1).     Cement  lining.      K. 
F.      Flagstone    between   the   brick    and 
mented  joint  immediately  over  F. 


water,  afford  an  undoubtedly  pure  water  from  a  sanitary  point, 

provided  they  do  not 
contain  sufficient  sa- 
line or  other  inor- 
ganic principles  to 
render  them  injurious. 
This  objection  has 
been  found  to  hold 
more  constantly  with 
artesian  wells  and  oc- 
casionally in  driven 
wells,  rarely  with 
deep  wells,  unless 
they  should  be  in  an 
area  containing  large 
quantities  of  salt- 
peter, chlorid  of  so- 
dium or  other  salines 
in  the  deeper  stratum 
of  the  earth. 

The  rate  of  production  from  a  well  may  be  estimated  by 
pumping  out  the  water  and  measuring  it  either  with  an  auto- 
matic pump  or  through  casks  of  known  capacity,  and  then  not- 
ing the  time  required  to  fill.  In  deep,  driven,  or  bored  wells, 
the  inflow  may  be  estimated  by  the  exhaustion  process  in  which 
constant  pumping  is  kept  up  until  no  more  water  can  be  obtained  ; 
then,  at  the  end  of  a  time  varying  from  one-half  to  two  or  three 
hours,  or  longer,  the  pumping  is  resumed  and  continued  until 
the  well  is  again  exhausted  ;  it  may  thus  be  estimated  what  the 
supply  of  water  has  been  in  the  time  since  the  previous  exhaus- 
tion. Allowance  must  be  calculated  for  rate  of  filling  during 
the  time  of  pumping.  ' 

Stortigi:  of  \l\itcr.  In  public  water  supplies  there  should  al- 
ways be  abundant  and  capacious  facilities  for  storage.  These 
not  only  afford  opportunities  for  laying  by  a  supply  for  two  or 
three  clays,  but  also  to  act  as  subsiding  reservoirs  for  the  removal 
of  such  suspended  matters  as  will  separate  by  subsidence.  Oc- 
casionally natural,  sometimes  artificial  lakes,  but  more  commonly 
reservoirs,  are  used  for  storage.  Facilities  should  be  afforded 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    WATKK.  189 

for  emptying  and  cleansing  the  reservoir  from  time  to  time. 
Where  large  natural  lakes  arc  depended  upon,  the  pollution  of 
the  water  during  storage  should  be  guarded  against  in  every 
possible  manner.  In  large  cities  three  or  four  subsiding  reser- 
voirs are  necessary,  representing  sufficient  water  supply  to  per- 
mit at  least  three  days'  (preferably  a  week)  subsidence  before  the 
water  is  drawn  off  for  use.  Efficient  Hushing  facilities  must  be 
secured  for  washing  out  the  reservoir  after  each  emptying,  and 
the  number  of  subsiding  reservoirs  should  be  in  excess  of  the 
actual  demand. 

Distribution.     Water  is  usually  distributed  in    cities  through 


FIG.  53. 


MODEL  OF  RRSERVOIR    (ox    SECTION)    SHOWING    MASONRY  WALLS  OK    BRICK  AND    CEMENTEI 


SLATE  LINING.     THF.  BEST  FORM  01-   RESERVOIR 


a  system  of  iron  pipes.  Lead  pipes,  or  lead  pipes  h'ned  with  tin, 
have  been  used  but  have  proven  objectionable.  Iron  pipes 
glazed  or  vitrified  by  a  glass  lining  have  been  manufactured  to 
displace  iron.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  lining  of  pipes 
affords  false  security,  as  the  lining  cracks  and  fissures,  and  where 
pipes  are  lined  with  tin,  it  has  been  found  that  these  cracks  form 
a  galvanic  couplet  which  rapidly  leads  to  the  reduction  of  the 
lead  used  commonly  in  the  sealing  of  joints. 

Methods    of  Distribution.     Two    methods    of   distribution  are 
known,  the  Constant  and  the  Intermittent.     The  latter  demands 


190 


WATER. 


storage  in  the  house  as  well  as  public  storage,  and  is  to  be 
strongly  condemned. 

The  Constant  is  more  in  use  and  affords  the  least  objec- 
tions. It  has  been  maintained  that  the  Intermittent  is  less  expen- 
sive, but  it  is  not  probable  that  if  as  much  water  is  used,  there 
would  be  any  observable  difference  between  the  cost  of  the  two 
systems.  In  the  Intermittent  system  the  water  supply  is  made 
in  different  areas  of  the  city  at  different  hours  and  each  area 
must  store  up  water  in  sufficient  quantities  to  last  until  another 
supply  is  furnished.  The  objections  to  this  demand  lie  in  the 
fact  that  house  storage  is  necessary,  and  this  brings  with  it  all 
the  dangers  of  unclean,  badly  ventilated,  improper  receptacles  in 
houses.  The  most  rigid  inspection  is  demanded  where  this 
system  is  in  vogue,  and  even  under  the  most  careful  scrutiny 
negligence,  at  times,  offers  ample  opportunity  for  contamination 
and  the  spread  of  disease.  The  Constant  system  is  the  one  more 
available,  and  is  not,  of  necessity,  more  wasteful  than  the  Inter- 
mittent, and  certainly  is  much  safer  to  public  health. 

Quantity  Demanded.  In  estimating  the  water  supply  for  a 
city  or  town,  the  population  is  usually  taken  as  a  basis  upon 
which  such  estimations  are  made.  For  individual  use,  including 
water  for  cooking,  washing,  baths,  etc.,  a  supply  of  from  sixteen 
to  twenty  gallons  per  day  is  necessary.  Where  there  are  manu- 
factories, from  ten  to  fifteen  gallons  per  head  must  be  added  to 
the  necessary  amount  for  household  purposes.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  a  wide  range  of  water  supply  must  be  taken,  as  de- 
manded in  individual  cases.  London  and  Glasgow  vary  in  their 
estimated  water  supply, -the  former  having  forty  and  the  latter 
fifty  gallons  per  head,  per  day.  It  has  been  estimated  that  for 
horses  ten  gallons  should  be  allowed,  for  a. cow  eight  gallons,  for 
the  sheep  and  pig  about  one  gallon  each.  Where  street-flushing 
and  sprinkling  is  enforced,  an  additional  allowanceof  two  gallons 
per  square  yard  must  be  made;  but  as  flushing  and  sprinkling 
maybe  intermittently  applied  over  the  city,  the  calculations  need 
be  based  upon  a  small  area  only. 

Dangers  Arising  from  Deficient  Water  Supply.  As  far  as  the 
sanitarian  is  concerned  deficient  water  supply  never  reaches  that 
point  amounting  to  water  starvation.  It  is  almost  exclusively 
what  is  popularly  known  in  the  cities  as  a  "  water  famine,"  or 


IMPURE    WATER.  19! 

scarcity  of  water.  The  dangers  arising  from  deficient  water 
supply  are,  for  the  most  part,  those  associated  with  want  of 
cleanliness.  Applied  to  a  community  at  large,  the  effects  due  to 
accumulated  material  in  sewers  and  the  collection  of  dirt  in  the 
street  are  most  prominent.  These  factors  lead  to  the  spread  of 
very  many  diseases,  notably,  typhoid  fever,  typhus  fever,  and 
diphtheria,  the  latter  being  certain  to  develop  where  the  indi- 
viduals are  crowded  together  in  large  tenement  houses  or  in  the 
dirtier  streets  and  alleys  which,  at  best,  are  poorly  cleaned  and 
badly  ventilated.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  when  a  de- 
ficient water  supply  is  due  to  a  drought,  any  contamination  in 
the  water  will  be  proportionately  increased,  while  if  the  deficiency 
is  due  to  other  causes,  for  example,  the  rupture  of  a  reservoir  or 
the  diverting  of  the  water  from  its  usual  course,  accidental 
causes,  such  dangers  are  less  likely  to  arise.  It  is  usually 
after  a  water  famine,  that  disease  is  most  prone  to  manifest  itself. 
This  may  be  only  apparent  as  the  period  of  incubation  lasts  for 
several  days,  even  weeks  in  some  diseases,  thereby  permitting 
the  disease  to  run  a  considerable  time  after  the  cause  lias  gained 
entrance  to  the  system  before  it  breaks  forth.  Another  fallacy 
in  these  observations  is  the  fact  that  drought  or  water  famines 
usually  terminate  by  an  abundant  supply  of  surface  water,  dis- 
tributed without  any  sufficient  preliminary  purification,  thus 
carrying  accumulated  infective  matter  directly  into  the  system  of 
distribution  throughout  a  city,  and  in  this  manner  scattering 
infection  broadcast. 

Impure  Water  Supply.  Hardness  of  water  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  earthy  salts,  carbonates  of  lime,  and  magnesia,  pro- 
ducing temporary  hardness  ;  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
intermixed  with  carbonic  acid  salts  producing  permanent  hard- 
ness ;  occasionally  the  water  will  contain  sufficient  chlorid  of 
sodium  to  give  it  a  distinctly  saline  taste.  In  mining  districts 
chromium  salts  may  be  present,  although  rarely  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  give  rise  to  any  disease;  they  are  to  be  considered 
as  injurious,  and  the  water  is  to  be  rejected  when  they  are 
present  to  any  marked  degree.  Iron  may  be  present  in  water, 
although  rarely  in  sufficient  quantities  to  give  rise  to  any  inter- 
ference with  the  public  health  ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  readily 
tasted  impurities  and  is  therefore  easily  detected.  Sulphur  and 


192 


WATER. 


sulphurous  acid  compounds  are  found  for  the  most  part  in  the 
water  of  medicinal  springs  and  rarely  are  brought  forward  as 
causes  of  disease. 

The  most  important  impurities  in  water  from  a  sanitary  view 
are  the  organic  constituents,  animal  and  vegetable.  These  in- 
clude sewerage,  all  forms  of  decomposing  vegetable  material, 
and  animal  matter,  bacteria  and  their  products.  These  organic 
impurities  will  be  chiefly  reviewed  when  considering  diseases 
attributed  to  impure  water. 

Diseases  due  to  Impure  Water.  Affections  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  including  dyspepsia,  diarrhea  and  dysentery,  may 
be  in  a  large  number  of  cases  due  to  impure  water.  It  has 
long  been  known  that  water  containing  sewerage  acts  as  a  pro- 
lific cause  of  diarrhea  and  dysentery.  Whether  this  be  due  to 
suspended  organic  matter,  parasites,  animal  or  vegetable, 
bacteria  or  their  products,  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute  ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  microbic  poisons  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  active.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  suspended  vegetable 
matter  other  than  bacteria,  have  been  supposed  to  give  rise  to 
diarrhea.  Hard  water  has  been  supposed  to  give  rise  to  dis- 
turbances of  digestion,  renal  calculi,  and  anemia,  but  sufficient 
evidence  is  wanting. 

Cholera  and  typhoid  fever  are  probably  the  best  examples  of, 
and  the  most  common,  diseases  transmitted  through  an  infected 
water  supply.  Epidemic  after  epidemic  has  demonstrated  in  the 
clearest  possible  manner  the  relation  existing  between  typhoid 
fever,  cholera,  and  infected  water  supplies.  Scientific  men  are 
now  agreed  that  this  spread  is  dependent  upon  the  transmission 
of  the  specific  microbes  of  the  two  diseases.  Based  upon  our 
knowledge,  therefore,  of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera,  we  may 
assume  that  any  of  the  diseases  clue  to  microbes  may  be  spread 
through  the  medium  of  infected  water.  This  has  been  demon- 
strated as  probably  occurring  in  diphtheria  and  scarlet  fever,  but 
the  complexus  of  circumstances  surrounding  such  observations 
is  such  as  to  render  proof  uncertain  or  unsatisfactory. 

The  spread  of  inaltiria  h;is  been  traced  direct!}'  to  the  water 
supply.  Probably  the  most  conclusive  evidence  that  we  have  in 
this  direction  is  that  recorded  by  Boudin.  Three  vessels  sailed 
from  Hona  in  Algiers  to  Marseilles,  all  carrying  soldiers;  at  the 


DISEASES    DUE   TO    IMPURE    WATER.  193 

time  of  sailing  the  passengers  were  all  in  the  most  excellent 
health  ;  during  the  voyage,  however,  upon  one  of  the  vessels 
thirteen  men  died;  and  of  the  107  survivors,  93  disembarked 
suffering  from  malarial  fever.  On  the  other  vessel  there  were  6<So 
men,  none  of  whom  were  sick.  The  explanation  of  the  sickness 
of  the  men  upon  the  first  vessel  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  the 
water  supplied  was  from  a  marsh  in  a  malarial  area,  while  the 
water  upon  the  other  vessels  had  been  supplied  from  an  unpolluted 
source.  This  is  but  one  example  of  the  numerous  instances  that 
are  now  on  record  where  malaria  has  been  intimately  associated 
with  the  supply  of  water  obtained  from  marshy  lowlands  and 
infected  areas.  Believing,  as  we  do,  in  the  specific  cause  of 
malaria,  such  facts  are  entirely  in  harmony  with  the  accepted 
views  of  its  etiology,  and  in  accord  with  the  views  already 
advanced  of  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera. 

Goiter,  cystic  calculi,  boils,  etc.,  have  been  supposed  to  be  due 
to  impurities  in  the  water,  the  most  acceptable  theories  tracing 
them  to  variations  in  hardness  and  to  organic  constituents. 
Such  theories  are,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to  be 
considered  as  apocryphal. 

Of  all  the  parasitic  diseases  named  in  the  chapter  on  the 
causes  of  diseases  it  is  highly  probable  that  water  may  be  the 
carrier  of  the  infecting  parasite.  Where  the  parasites  live  within 
the  body  their  ingress  is  usually  secured  through  the  alimentary 
canal,  while  those  having  their  habitat  on  or  in  the  skin  and  its 
appendices  usually  gain  ingress  during  bathing  or  exposure  to 
the  water. 

In  yelloiv  fever  there  is  a  possibility  of  water  carrying  the 
poison,  although  sufficient  evidence  has  not  been  adduced  to 
establish  any  facts. 

rtoinainc  poisoning  may  arise  from  the  ingestion  of  water 
containing  large  quantities  of  sewerage  ;  cases  of  this  kind  have 
been  observed  in  youths  bathing  near  the  exit  of  a  sewer  into  a 
stream,  and  whether  they  swallowed  the  water  or  whether  it 
can  be  absorbed  through  the  cutaneous  .surface  is  still  a  matter 
of  dispute. 

Parkes  suggests  the  possibility  of  the  bronchial  and  urinary 
mucous  membranes  being  affected  by  impure  water,  but  there  is 
little  evidence  to  support  such  a  theory. 


I94 


WATER. 


The  production  of  metallic  poisoning  in  its  chronic  forms  is 
extremely  likely  to  occur  from  the  use  of  water  containing  pois- 
onous metals  in  solution. 

Aside  from  the  specific  diseases  which  have  already  been 
referred  to,  one  is  to  remember  that  as  water  is  an  important 
factor  in  maintaining  the  nutrition  of  the  body,  anything  which 
vitiates  it  must  of  necessity  affect  the  health  of  the  community 
in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  degree  of  impurity. 

The  Purification  of  Water.  This  is  to  be  accomplished  on 
a  large  scale  at  the  point  of  storage,  in  the  minor  details  at  the 
point  of  distribution,  that  is,  in  the  houses  of  those  using  the 
water. 

For  purification  on  a  large  scale,  we  are  to  depend  for  the 
most  part  upon  physical  and  mechanical  means,  including  sub- 
sidence and  filtration.  In  cities  where  subsidence  is  depended  upon 
for  attaining  purification,  large  reservoirs  should  be  constructed, 
permitting  the  storage  of  several  days'  supply,  which  should  be 
allowed  to  subside  for  at  lease  three,  preferably  five  to  seven 
days,  or  even  longer,  before  it  is  drawn  off,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  tap  the  water  at  such  a  point  as  not  to  remove  the 
sediment  by  the  first  current  induced.  After  each  emptying  the 
reservoir  should  have  a  thorough  cleaning. 

Purification  by  filtration  is  usually  accomplished  through  a 
bed  of  sand,  gravel,  charcoal,  spongy  iron,  or  coke  of  various 
depths.  Mixed  processes  of  filtration  depend  for  their  efficiency 
upon  the  addition  of  some  chemical  to  the  water  before  it  is  fil- 
tered. This  is  usually  alum  ;  if  carbonate  of  calcium  be  present 
in  the  water,  sulphate  of  calcium  is  formed  with  a  flocculent  pre- 
cipitate of  aluminum  hydrate  entangling  any  suspended  matter, 
which  may  then  be  removed  by  filtration. 

The  essential  elements  of  a  filter  on  a  large  scale  are,  first,  it 
must  be  effective,  second,  it  must  be  rapid,  and  third,  there  must 
be  facilities  for  renewing  that  portion  of  the  filter  which  receives 
the  suspended  matter  from  the  \vater,  in  other  words,  it  must  be 
so  arranged  that  the  entire  filtering  apparatus  can  be  cleaned 
from  time  to  time.  Unless  such  arrangements  are  made  and 
carried  out,  the  filtering  cannot  be  efficient.  The  popular  idea 
that  placing  a  filter  in  position  will  forever  render  the  water 
pure  is  the  greatest  possible  mistake.  Organic  matter  lodged 


PURIFICATION    OF    WATER. 


195 


in  the  filter  affords  a  culture  media  for  bacteria,  many  of  them 
pathogenic,  and  renders  the  filter  a  veritable  hotbed  of  disease. 
Not  only  should  the  entire  filtering  apparatus  be  cleaned  from 
time  to  time,  but  if  sand  is  used  for  the  filter,  the  upper  layers 
should  be  renewed  as  soon  as  any  considerable  dirt  is  dis- 
cerned. 

A  sand  or  gravel  filter  bed  to  be  efficient  must  be  made  up  of 
sand  or  gravel  free  from  loam  or  clay  and  possessing  but  little 
cohesion  between  the  grains.  Such  a  sand  cannot  be  held  in 
the  hand  in  running  water,  as  it  will  creep  through  the  fingers. 
The  bed  should  be  not  less  than  15  inches  in  depth  and  the 


FIG.  54- 


DIAGRAM  OF  FILTER  FOR  PIIHLIC  WATER  SIITLY. 

a.  Receiving  tank  or  reservoir,  d.  Flush  gate  for  same.  !>.  Sand  bed,  to  be  made  up  of  successive 
layers  of  sand  of  varying  size  grains,  the  larger  quartz  at  bottom,  c.  Entry  pipe  carried  out 
laterally  to  secure  influx  at  a  low  velocity.  At  c  is  shown  cock  for  controlling  supply,  f.  Shows 
line  of  conduits  to  chamber,  A,  through  pipe,  jf.  To  start  the  filter,  the  receiving  tank  a  is  first 
filled  ;  chamber,  /(,  is  then  filled  with  tin  filtered  water  and  syphonage  established  into  the  general 
water  system  to  be  supplied.  To  wash  the  filter,  turn  off  the  supply  at  c,  open  gate,  d,  and  then 
the  air-tight  manhole  in  chamber,  //.  This  permits  a  reflux  of  filtered  water.  The  rake,  f.  U 
moved  backward  and  forward  on  the  tracks  as  shown  by  the  wheels  ;  this  stirs  the  superficial 
layer  of  sand,  and  the  dirt  is  carried  off  by  the  refluent  at  it. 


inflow  of  water  so  arranged  as  to  preclude  the  constant  stirring 
of  the  sand.  The  efficiency  of  the  sand  filter  is  enhanced  by 
the  deposition  on  its  surface  of  a  thin  layer  of  mud,  and  the 
thicker  the  layer  the  more  efficient  the  filter,  until  at  last  filtra- 
tion will  be  arrested.  While  the  accumulated  mud  increases 
the  efficiency  of  the  filter,  it  may  at  times  endanger  the  output, 
especially  if  it  contains  an  excess  of  organic  matter;  hence 
leaves  and  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  such  a  bed  must  be 
looked  upon  with  suspicion,  if  not,  indeed,  regarded  as  positively 
dangerous.  A  system  of  filtration  has  been  recently  devised  by 
means  of  which  a  reflux  of  filtered  water  mav  be  secured,  and 


196 


WATER. 


if  the  surface   bed   of  mud  be  stirred  during  the  flow  of  the 

refluent  the  surface  of  the  filter  may 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  the 
deposited  super-stratum  carried  off 
through  a  wash-gate  arranged  at  the 
side  or  end  of  the  filter  bed.  This 
system  presents  a  point  of  economy 
in  that  it  does  not  require  renewal 
of  the  sand.  The  same  principle  has 
been  applied  in  domestic  filters,  and 
it  has  been  here  strengthened  by 
securing  ingress  of  the  refluent 
heated,  the  supply  either  coming 
from  the  hot-water  system  of  the 
house  or  heated  through  a  coil  and 
burner  beneath  the  filter  as  it  enters 
at  the  bottom.  A  device  is  secured 
in  the  top  of  the  filter  bed  for  stir- 
ring the  deposited  mud  and  a  super- 
ficial layer  of  the  sand  while  the  re- 
turning1 hot-water  current  is  flow- 


I.ARGF.    DoMKSTIC  FlLTF.K  CoNSTRUCTKD 

ON  run  SAME  BASIS  AS  KILTER  SHOWN 

,.    sand    Chan,!!;";',  inlet    from    street 


It  would  seem   from  the  opinion 


throu^h  ii  at   the   bottom,  at  the  same 

time  ayitalin^  the  sand  by  means  of  the 

screw,/,  acting  on  the  rake, g.     In  case 

hot  water  cannot  he  had  from  the  house 

supply  the  refluent   may   l>e  heated    by          ,  11 

means  of   gas  or  oil    applied   under  a    of   SOniC   experts,  \VilO   haVC  gOUC   UltO 

coil,  as  shown  at  /r.  i  /-    1 1  1 

the  matter  more  or  less  fully,  that. 

intermittent  filtration  affords  a  method  for  securing  cleanliness 
of  filters,  bacteria  destroying  the  organic  matter  in  the  filter 
during  the  intervals  in  which  it  is  not  in  use.  This  apparent 
cleansing  of  the  filter  seems  to  us  extremely  faulty,  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  some  disease  germs  might  lie  in  an  open 
filter  for  a  prolonged  period  and  still  retain  their  activity.  Theo- 
retically, therefore,  there  are  urgent  objections  to  such  methods 
of  filtration. 

The  two  or  three  methods,  devised  by  different  inventors  for 
the  purification  of  water  after  the  addition  of  alum,  have  been 
found  extremely  useful  and  efficient  in  the  cities  of  the  South 
and  West,  where  the  water  is  very  muddy  and  loaded  with  other 
suspended  matters. 

Domestic  l'iltrati<»i.     There  can   be   no  doubt  that  the  proper 


DOMESTIC    FILTRATION. 


197 


filtration  of  water  in  houses  is  always  to  be  commended.  The 
great  source  of  error  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  get  a  family  to  keep  a  filter  clean  ;  therefore,  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  an  efficient  domestic  filter  is  simplicity  ;  all  of  the  parts 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  readily  cleansed  and 
disinfected.  All  filters  having  solid  chambers  which  cannot  be 
removed  for  the  renewing  of  the  sand  or  other  material  used  for 
the  extraction  of  impurities  are  to  be  rejected  on  the  ground  of 
deficiency  in  ability  to  clean.  Although  the  market  is  loaded 
with  domestic  filters,  there  are  very  few  deserving  of  public 
confidence.  Probably  the  best  form  of  domestic  filter  is  that 


FIG.  56  I). 


A  PASTEUR-CHAMBER  LAND      Sectional  view  of  56,  A,  show-      FOKM  or  PASTITK  FII.TKK,  show- 
FJLTEK   ATTACHKD   TO  ing    relation    of    parts    with  ing    filtering    tubes    in    position, 

SPIGOT.  filtering  "bougie"   in   posi-          also  side  tank  for  ice  so  arranged 

tion.  that   the  water  from   the  melted 

ice    does    not    mix    with    the  fil- 
tered water. 

based  upon  the  filtration  through  a  layer  of  ungla/.ed  porcelaii^ 
porous  stone,  a  porous  sand  composition,  or,  possibly,  spongy 
iron.  These  all  allow  of  being  placed  in  the  oven  and  baked 
without  injury,  and  may  be  thus  cleaned.  The  filter  should  be 
thoroughly  washed  at  least  once  or  twice  a  week  and  then  baked 
in  the  oven  or  "  fired."  "  Firing  "  a  filter  consists  in  saturating 
the  filter  with  alcohol  and  then  setting  the  alcohol  abla/.e  ;  this 
should  be  accomplished  from  underneath,  so  that  the  heat  may 
ascend  through  the  filter  and  destroy  any  bacteria  which  may  be 
present.  Vegetable  charcoal  and  sponges  are  to  be  con- 
demned upon  the  ground  that  it  is  necessary  to  destroy  them 
in  order  to  secure  disinfection  ;  the  fact  that  their  destruction 
demands,  each  time,  a  small  outlay  of  money  and  some  labor 


198 


WATER. 


will  make  families  negligent  and  careless;  indeed,  the  writers  have 
known  of  filters  that  ran  one  and  two  years  without  cleaning, 
only  to  terminate  with  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  in  the 
house;  then,  of  course,  the  filter  was  blamed  and  not  the  resi- 
dents of  the  house.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  what  this  occurs 
over  and  over  again,  and  it  is  to  be  guarded  against  in  the 
recommendation  of  domestic  filters. 

No  matter  what  may  be  the  form  or  process  of  filtration,  water 


FIG. 


This  can  be  c 
The  cylii 


shown  ii 


As  the 

time       T 
from   the  I 


PASTEUK-CHAMBBRLAND  FILTER,  TOUKIST  PATTERN. 

niemly  packed  and  carried  by  the  traveler  who  wishes  to  filter  all  drinking  water, 
der  on  the  left  contains  the  filter  "  bougie,"  which  maybe  scrubbed,  boiled,  or  baked 
necessary.     To  use   this   filler  the  different  parts  are  connected  by  rubber  tubing  as 
e  drawing.      The  .mart  bottle  in  the  center  is  then  exhausted  of  air  by  means  of  the 
,"  shown  on  the  left  is  then  immersed  in  the  water  to  be  filtered, 
me  Has  the  vacuum  in  the  bottle  will  require  re-exhaustion  from  time  to 
ni;  toward   the  bottle   indicate   the   direction  taken  by  the  water,  those 


e  rinlit,  the  "  I 


er  contains 


tile  to  the  pump  show  the  track  taken  by  the  exhausted  air. 


should  always  be  boiled  before  it  is  used.  Boiling  insures  the 
destruction  of  any  bacteria  which  may  be  present,  and  there  is 
no  possible  excuse  for  the  use  of  unboiled  water  when  there- 
exists  any  reason  for  discrediting  the  purity  of  the  supply.  Kvcn 
the  use  of  ice  water,  water  produced  by  the  melting  of  ice,  is  not 


DISTILLATION    OF    WATEK. 


•99 


to  be  recommended  without  a  most  thorough  boiling.  Pruddcn, 
of  Ne\v  York,  has  demonstrated  the  presence  of  typhoid  fever 
bacilli  in  ice,  and  as  no  ice  company  can  be  made  to  insure  the 
quality  of  this  commodity,  it  will  be  much  better  and  safer  to 
always  boil  the  water  and  secure  its  cooling  in  a  suitable  recep- 
tacle excluded  from  the  melted  ice. 

The  distillation  of  water  as  a  process  of  purification  is  to  be  con- 
sidered only  when  on  board  ships  and  where  it  is  not  to  be  used  in 


FIG.  59. 


FK;.  60. 


SIMPLE  FILTER. 

Consisting  of  an  ordinary  percolator, 
two  layers  of  cotton  with  a  layer  of 
quartz  between,  and  an  inverted 
glass  funnel  resting  upon  the  upper 
layer  of  cotton  which  it  retains  in 
position.  This  simple  apparatus 
may  be  constructed  of  almost  any 
substitute  for  the  percolator  here 
shown.  If  before  filtration  alum  be 
added  to  the  water,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  2  grains  to  the  gallon,  a  very 
clear  product  may  be  obtained. 


SAND  FILTER. 

(The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  water).  It  is 
intended  that  this  filter  may  be  made  of  two  sizes  of  cans 
with  sand  between  them  The  inner  can  is  perforated  at 
the  bottom.  To  use  this  improvised  filter  it  may  be  sunken  to 
the  top  of  the  outer  can  in  water  or  water  saturated  soil.  It 
can  be  disinfected  by  boiling  and  can  be  refilled  by  troops 
at  their  convenience,  being  dNinfecte  before  use.  For  its 

y  fruit  cans,  such 
inks  or  hogsheads,  in 
iner  one  having  per- 
t  the  sand  arising  in 
the  inner  can  a  layer  of  cotton  or  a  muslin  cloth  between 
the  bottom  and  the  sand  may  be  found  useful.  The  writers 
have  frequently  tested  the  efficiency  of  such  a  filter. 


fact  any  two  water  tight  vessels,  the 


porations   at   the   bottom.     To  pie 


large  quantities.  In  order  to  have  pure  distilled  water,  first,  the 
water  must  contain  no  gases  which  maybe  brought  over  with  the 
distillate  ;  second,  the  water  should  be  boiled  thoroughly  before 
the  distillation  begins  and  the  first  steam  allowed  to  escape  with- 
out gaining  ingress  to  the  condensing  apparatus  ;  third,  the 
entire  apparatus  should  be  made  out  of  block-tin  or  such  other 
material  as  will  not  yield  any  poisonous  metal  to  the  water  dur- 
ing the  process  of  distillation.  In  order  to  render  such  water 
palatable  aeration  is  demanded. 


2OO  WATER. 

Water  Examination. 

Collection.  The  method  employed  in  collecting  a  sample 
of  water  is  apt  to  greatly  influence  the  result  of  a  chemical 
or  biological  analysis,  therefore,  great  care  must  be  exercised 
and  certain  rules  followed.  The  vessel  in  which  the  water  is  to 
be  collected,  if  intended  for  chemical  analysis,  should  be  a  glass 
bottle  provided  with  a  glass  stopper,  and  of  a  capacity  of  from 
two  to  three  pints.  The  bottle  must  be  scrupulously  clean.  Two 
precautions  must  always  be  observed  :  1st.  The  bottle  is  rinsed 
with  water  from  the  same  source  as  that  from  which  the  sample 
is  to  be  taken,  and  immediately  before  collecting  the  water  in- 
tended for  analysis.  2d.  If  the  sample  is  to  be  taken  from  a 
stream  or  pond,  the  bottle  should  be  submerged  about  one  and 
a  half  feet  below  the  surface,  so  as  to  avoid  surface  contamina- 
tion ;  if  from  a  pump  or  hydrant,  several  gallons  of  the  water 
must  be  allowed  to  flow  away,  so  as  to  obtain  a  sample  direct 
from  the  well  or  main.  The  bottle  should  bear  a  label,  upon 
which  is  legibly  written  the  date  on  which  the  sample  was  taken — 
whether  from  a  well,  deeper  shallow,  pond,  reservoir,  stream,  or 
from  the  main  of  a  public  supply  ;  the  environment,  that  is,  the 
propinquity  of  middens,  cesspools,  drains,  sewers,  stables, 
farms,  etc.;  also,  if  from  a  pump  or  hydrant,  of  what  material 
the  pipes  are  constructed. 

In  collecting  water — and  the  same  applies  to  sewage,  etc.,  for  a 
biological  examination — great  care  must  be  exercised  to  exclude 
extraneous  organisms.  The  bottle,  flask,  or  whatever  the  col- 
lecting vessel  may  be,  is  washed  perfectly  clean,  plugged  with 
cotton, and  sterilized  in  the  hot-air  sterilizer.  Sternberg's  bulbs  are 
very  convenient  for  collecting  water,  especially  if  it  is  intended  to 
be  shipped  any  distance.  If  the  water  has  to  be  transported,  or  if 
it  is  impossible  to  examine  the  specimen  immediately,  it  should 
be  packed  in  ice,  to  prevent  the  rapid  pullulation  of  the  organ- 
isms that  would  otherwise  occur  and  vitiate  the  results  of  the 
analysis.  The  body  of  water  from  which  the  samples  are  to  be 
obtained,  being  of  easy  access  and  shallow,  it  is  withdrawn  by  a 
sterile  pipette  and  quickly  deposited  in  the  vessel  prepared  for 
its  reception.  If  the  water  is  deep,  it  will  be  necessary  to  pro- 
cure samples  at  different  depths.  To  accomplish  this,  a  sterile 
flask  is  inverted  and  attached  to  a  long  pole;  it  is  now  lowered 


ODOK,    COLOR,    AND   TRANSPARENCY.  2O I 

to  the  desired  depth  and  the  flask  righted;  when  filled,  which 
will  be  indicated  by  the  cessation  of  bubbles  rising  to  the  sur- 
face, it  is  drawn  up,  and  the  contents  placed  without  delay  in 
other  sterile  flasks.  From  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  while  the 
number  of  organisms  in  a  specimen  are  significant,  and  an  ap- 
proximate quantitative  analysis  important,  a  qualitative  analysis 
is  decidedly  of  more  moment.  Plating  is  the  method  upon  which 
the  accuracy  of  our  investigations  will  mainly  depend — and  frac- 
tional plating  should  in  all  cases  be  resorted  to. 

In  our  examination  of  water  and  other  fluids,  test-tube  plating 
has  proven  very  satisfactory ;  so  also  has  the  bottle  plating. 
recommended  by  Leffmann  and  Beam,  and  described  under 
plating.  (See  Tccluiic.} 

While  the  odor,  color,  and  transparency  of  water  are  not  abso- 
lute tests  as  to  its  potability,  yet  they  have  considerable  value,  and 
observations  on  these  points  should  never  be  neglected. 

Odors.  Waters  from  which  unpleasant  odors  emanate  are 
almost  without  exception  non-potable.  The  odor  may  be  de- 
termined by  pouring  into  a  narrow-necked  flask  sufficient  water 
to  make  it  one-third  full,  and  then  vigorously  shaking  the  flask  ; 
if  no  odor  can  be  detected,  heat  the  water  and  again  shake  ;  if  it 
still  gives  off  no  odor,  add  a  small  piece  of  caustic  potash.  The 
waters  from  some  of  our  mineral  springs  have  a  very  disagree- 
able odor,  but  this  odor  is  due  to  the  presence  of  hydrogen  sul- 
phid,  which  is  occasionally  produced  in  the  breaking  up  of  the 
sulphur  compound  derived  from  the  soil  by  certain  non-patho- 
genic microbes. 

Color  and  transparency  are  tested  by  selecting  two  tubes  ot 
colorless  glass,  about  two  feet  in  length.  One  tube  is  filled  with 
the  water  undergoing  examination  and  the  other  tube  with  dis- 
tilled water  for  comparison.  Hold  the  tubes  side  by  side  over  a 
white  surface,  and  note  the  difference  between  them.  A  yellow- 
ish or  greenish  tint  is  very,  suspicious  and  usually  indicates 
organic  matter,  though  it  ma}-  be  due  to  mineral  salts.  A  brown- 
ish tint  is  imparted  to  water  by  clay,  peat,  or  vegetable  matter. 

A  very  simple  test  which  may  indicate  the  presence  of  sewage 
is  made  by  introducing  into  a  quart  bottle,  until  it  is  three- 
quarters  full,  the  water  to  be  tested,  and  adding  about  a  drachm 
of  granulated  sugar.  Stopper  the  bottle  and  place  it  in  a  warm 
13 


2O2  WATER. 

place  for  two  days,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the  water,  if 
it  contains  sewage,  will  appear  turbid.  Little  dependence  is  to 
be  placed  upon  this  test  except  as  corroborating  other  evidence. 

Total  Solids.  In  good  potable  waters  the  total  solids  should  not 
exceed  .06  per  cent.,  though  if  they  be  present  in  a  much  greater 
proportion  it  does  not  positively  indicate  that  the  water  is  unsuit- 
able for  drinking  purposes.  To  determine  the  total  solids, 
evaporate  to  dryness  in  a  platinum  dish  over  a  water  bath  a  defi- 
nite quantity  of  water.  Weigh  the  dish,  then  wipe  it  perfectly 
clean,  and  again  weigh  ;  the  difference  will  represent  the  number  of 
grains  in  the  water  tested.  To  determine  the  grains  in  100,000 
parts,  multiply  the  number  of  grains  in  the  sample  tested  by  one 
hundred,  and  divide  the  result  by  the  number  of  c.c.  of  water  tested. 

Organic  Matter.  The  determination  of  organic  matter  is  very 
easy  and  simple,  but  to  say  that  it  is  or  that  it  is  not  innocuous 
is  impossible.  The  permanganate  of  potash  test  is  accomplished 
by  boiling  5  c.c.  of  a  ten  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  with 
250  c.c.  of  water  for  one-half  an  hour  to  remove  the  nitrous  acid. 
Set  aside  until  the  temperature  of  the  water  falls  to  60°  F.,  and 
then  add  sufficient  of  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash, 
made  by  adding  395  milligrams  of  the  salt  to  one  liter  of  water, 
to  impart  a  pink  color  to  the  water  for  ten  minutes.  The  number 
of  c.c.  of  the  permanganate  solution  decomposed  represents  in 
one-tenth  milligrams  the  oxygen  that  has  entered  into  the  com- 
bination with  the  organic  matter. 

Clilcnn.  If  natural  sources  be  excluded,  chlorin  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity  indicates  sewage  pollution,  and  if  the  test 
for  organic  matter  has  given  positive  results  the  water  should 
be  unhesitatingly  condemned.  Chlorin  ma}-  be  detected  and 
the- quantity  estimated  by  the  following  methods  :  Should  the 
preliminary  examination  develop  the  chlorin  present  in  small 
quantities,  250  c.c.  are  evaporated  to  50  c.c.,  but  should  it  be 
present  in  abundance  this  will  not  be  necessary.  The  water 
should  be  neutral  in  reaction.  If  acid,  neutralize  with  precipi- 
tated carbonate  of  calcium.  Pour  the  water  into  a  porcelain  dish 
and  add  a  few  drops  of  a  potassium  chromate  solution,  made  by 
dissolving  five  grams  of  potassium  chromate  in  100  c.c.  of  dis- 
tilled water.  I'Yom  a  burette  supply  such  a  quantity  of  a  stand- 
ard silver  nitrate  solution  (5  grams  of  pure  recrystalli/ed  nitrate 


AMMONIUM    COMPOUNDS.  20} 

of  silver  to  looo  c.c.  of  distilled  water)  as  will  permanently  impart 
to  the  water  a  faint  red  color,  through  the  formation  of  the  chro- 
mate  of  silver.  The  proportion  of  chlorin  is  estimated  upon  the 
number  of  c.c.  of  the  silver  solution  employed,  as  every  cubic  cen- 
timeter of  the  solution  used  represents  one  milligram  of  chlorin. 

Ammonium  Compounds.  The  decomposition  of  nitrogenous 
organic  compounds  results  in  the  formation  of  ammonia  nitrates 
and  nitrites,  and  it  is  upon  the  estimation  of  these  that  the  amount 
of  decomposed  organic  matter  is  determined.  Ammonia  is  also 
produced  from  albuminous  and  other  cognate  compounds  by 
boiling  with  an  alkaline  solution  of  potassium  permanganate. 
To  estimate  the  ammonia  it  will  require  the  following  solutions  : — 

Sodium  Carbonate.  Fifty  grams  of  pure  sodium  carbonate  arc- 
heated  and  then  dissolved  in  250  c.c.  of  distilled  water.  Boil  the 
solution  until  the  bulk  is  reduced  to  200  c.c. 

Pure  Distilled  Water.  Distilled  water,  which  gives  a  brownish 
coloration  with  Nessler's  reagent,  contains  ammonia  from  which 
it  must  be  freed;  this  may  be  accomplished  by  adding  one  grain 
of  sodium  carbonate  to  each  liter  of  water  and  boiling  the  water 
until  it  is  reduced  to  three-fourths  of  its  original  bulk.  By  dis- 
tilling water  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  water  free 
from  ammonia  may  be  obtained. 

Ammonium  Chlorid.  Dissolve  0.382  gram  of  the  pure  and 
dry  salt  in  100  c.c.  of  distilled  water  free  from  all  traces  of 
ammonium.  When  required  for  use,  dilute  one  c.c.  of  this 
solution  with  99  c.c.  of  pure  distilled  water.  In  the  latter 
solution  there  are  .00001  gram  of  nitrogen  in  each  c.c. 

Xcsslers  Reagent.  (<?)  35  grams  of  potassium  iodid  are  dis- 
solved in  100  c.c.  of  distilled  water,  (b)  I/  grams  of  mercuric 
chlorid  are  dissolved  in  300  c.c.  of  hot  distilled  water.  Solu- 
tion b  is  added  to  solution  a  until  a  permanent  precipitate  forms. 
Dilute  to  1000  c.c.  with  a  20  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  hy- 
clroxid.  Again  add  solution  b  until  a  permanent  precipitate 
forms.  It  is  now  allowed  to  stand  until  it  becomes  clear. 
Xessler's  Reagent  should  be  kept  in  a  glass-stoppered  bottle. 
It  improves  with  age. 

Alkaline  Permanganate.  Dissolve  eight  grams  of  potassium 
permanganate  and  200  grams  of  potassium  hydroxid  in  a 
liter  of  distilled  water.  Boil  the  solution  until  about  one- 


2O4  WATER. 

fourth  has  been  evaporated ;  then  add  ammonium-free  dis- 
tilled water  to  make  up  the  liter.  This  solution  must  be 
tested  for  ammonia,  the  amount  determined,  and  the  necessary 
deduction  made  in  each  test. 

The  test  requires  a  glass  retort  connected  with  a  Liebig 
condenser.  The  retort  and  the  condenser  must  be  thoroughly 
washed  out  with  ammonium-free  water  before  inaugurating  the 
test.  500  c.c.  of  the  water  to  be  analyzed  are  poured  into  the 
retort  and  alkalinized  with  5  c.c.  of  the  sodium  carbonate  solu- 
tion. A  piece  of  pumice  stone  is  heated  to  redness  and  dropped 
into  the  retort.  The  water  is  gently  boiled  until  50  c.c.  has 
been  distilled.  The  distillate  is  poured  into  a  cylinder  of  color- 
less glass  with  a  diameter  of  2.5  c.m.  and  a  capacity  of  100  c.c. 
Two  c.c.  of  Nessler's  Reagent  added  to  the  distillate  in  the 
comparison  cylinder  produce  a  yellowish-brown  color,  which  is 
fully  developed  in  about  five  minutes.  The  intensity  of  the 
color  depends  upon  the  amount  of  ammonia  present.  Into 
another  comparison  cylinder,  the  same  as  the  one  first  used, 
are  introduced  50  c.c.  of  ammonium-free  water,  a  small  but 
known  quantity  of  the  ammonium  chlorid  solution,  and  2  c.c. 
of  Xessler's  Reagent.  The  object  is  to  make  a  solution  that 
will  in  color  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  water  tested.  Several 
solutions  with  varying  quantities  of  the  ammonium  chlorid 
solution  may  have  to  be  made  before  the  color  is  matched 
exactly. 

As  the  same  amounts  of  ammonia  always  produce  the  same 
color,  then,  knowing  the  quantity  of  ammonia  in  the  control 
test,  we  can  readily  determine  the  amount  of  ammonia  in  the 
sample  tested. 

Continue  the  distillation  and  collect  the  distillate  in  lots  of 
50  c.c.  until  no  reaction  occurs  upon  the  addition  of  Nessler's 
Reagent.  For  each  50  c.c.  of  distillate  it  is  neccsary  to  make 
control  comparison  tests,  and  then  by  adding  the  results  thus 
obtained  we  deteimine  the  total  nitrogen  existing  as  free 
ammonia. 

As  ammonia  is  formed  in  the  decomposition  of  urea  and 
certain  nitrogenous  compounds,  it  is  useless  to  prolong  the  dis- 
tillation beyond  the  fourth  or  fifth  distillate,  as  in  such  instances 
the  evolution  of  ammonia  mav  continue  indefinitely. 


NITRATES    AND    NITRITES.  2O5 

After  the  evolution  of  ammonia  ceases,  to  the  residue  in  the 
retort  are  added  50  c.c.  of  the  alkaline  potassium  permanganate 
and  the  process  of  distillation  resumed,  and  the  nitrogen  in 
each  50  c.c.  determined  as  before,  remembering  to  make  due 
allowance  for  the  ammonia  in  the  permanganate  solution. 

The  ammonia  obtained  by  the  first  process  is  the  "  free 
ammonia ;"  while  the  second  process  determines  the  "  albumi- 
noid ammonia.  "  It  is  better  not  to  add  the  alkaline  potassium 
permanganate  until  the  test  for  free  ammonia  is  completed. 

Nitrates.  A  known  volume  of  water  is  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness  in  a  platinum  or  porcelain  dish.  One  c.c.  of  phenolsul- 
phonic  acid,  made  by  incorporating  37  c.c.  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid  and  3  c.c.  of  distilled  water  with  6  grams  of  pure 
phenol,  is  added  to  the  residue,  and  the  two  thoroughly  mixed. 
Add  one  c.c.  of  distilled  water,  three  drops  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid,  and  gently  warm  the  dish  over  a  water  bath.  Dilute  the 
solution  with  25  c.c.  of  distilled  water,  add  an  excess  of 
ammonium  hydroxid,  and  again  dilute  with  water  sufficient  to 
make  up  100  c.c.  By  this  procedure,  the  water  is  imbued  with  a 
yellow  color  through  the  formation  of  ammonium  picrate — 
brought  about  by  the  conversion  of  phenolsulphonic  acid  into 
picric  acid  by  the  action  of  the  nitrate  and  by  the  picric  acid 
combining  with  ammonium  hydroxid  to  form  ammonium 
picrate.  The  intensity  of  color  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
nitrate  present. 

One  c.c.  of  a  potassium  nitrate  solution  (0.722  gram  of 
potassium  nitrate,  heated  to  fusing  temperature,  dissolved  in 
IOOO  c.c.  of  water;  one  c.c.  is  equivalent  to  .0001  gram  of  nitro- 
gen) is  evaporated  in  a  dish  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
was  the  sample  of  water.  The  test  solution  and  the  water  are 
compared  and  the  color  made  to  match.  The  necessary  data 
for  estimating  the  nitrate  is  supplied  by  the  comparative 
volumes  of  the  liquids,  as  for  example;  suppose  that  15  c.c  of 
water  are  used  in  the  test,  and  this  is  diluted  to  looc.c.;  further, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  dilute  the  control  test  to  200  c.c.  to  obtain 
the  desired  color,  the  amount  of  nitrates  is  determined  thus  : 
200  :  100:  :  .OOOi  :  x.  x  =  .00005  X.  in  15  c.c.  of  the  water,  there- 
fore, in  1000  c.c.  there  are  0.0033  °f  ^~- 

Xitritcs.     The     determination     of     nitrites     is     executed     bv 


2O6  WATER. 

Ilosvay's  modification  of  Griess'  test.  The  advantages  of  Ilosvay's 
method  over  the  original  test  is  that  it  develops  the  color  more 
rapidly  and  the  test  solutions  are  more  stable. 

The  following  solutions  will  be  required  in  the  performance  of 
this  test  :— 

Para-aniidobenzencsnlphonic  Acid.  Dissolve  0.5  gram  of 
para-amidobenzenesulphonic  acid  (Sulphanilic  Acid)  in  150  c.  c. 
of  dilute  acetic  acid  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.040. 

u-amido-naphthalcne  Acetate-.  One-tenth  gram  of  naphthyla- 
mine  is  boiled  in  20  c.  c.  of  water  and  filtered  through  washed  ab- 
sorbent cotton  ;  it  is  then  mixed  with  180  c.c.  of  dilute  acetic  acid. 
All  water  and  utensils  must  be  free  from  nitrites,  for  so  sensi- 
tive is  the  reagent  that  appreciable  quantities  are  absorbed  from 
the  air. 

Standard  Sodium  Xitrifc.  Dissolve  0.275  gram  of  pure  silver 
nitrite  in  pure  distilled  water,  and  add  of  a  dilute  solution  of 
sodium  chlorid  until  precipitation  ceases.  Add  sufficient  dis- 
tilled water  to  make  250  c.c.,  and  stand  aside  until  clear.  Keep 
the  solution  in  the  dark.  For  use  dilute  10  c.c.  of  this  solution 
with  90  c.c.  of  distilled  water. 

For  each  c.c.  of  the  dilute  solution  employed  in  the  test  there 
is  present  .ooooi  gram  of  nitrogen. 

The  te>t  is  as  follows  :  Pour  25  c.c.  of  water  into  a  color 
comparison  cylinder,  and  then  with  a  pipette  add  2  c.c.  each  of 
the  sulphanilic  acid  and  the  amido-naphthalene  acetate  solu- 
tions. There  should  be  a  pipette  for  each  solution. 

Into  another  cylinder  place  I  c.c.  of  the  standard  sodium 
nitrite  solution,  and  then  sufficient  nitrite-free  water  added  to 
make  up  25  c.c.  This  is  now  treated  as  was  the  first. 

After  the  expiration  of  five  minutes  the  two  are  compared,  and 
the  one  \\hich  is  darker  in  color  is  diluted  with  pure  distilled 
water  until  the  color  appears  the  same. 

The  calculation   is  made  in  the  same  way  as  that  for  nitrates. 

Ptnsoitons  J/iV<7/.v.  The  most  important  mineral  poisons  found 
in  water  are  (irsanc,  lend,  copper,  and  zinc.  The  constant  pres- 
ence of  any  of  these  minerals  is  sufficient  to  condemn  water  for 
drinking  purposes. 

.-Irscfiti-  is  most  conveniently  detected  by  Reinsch's  test.  This 
test  is  executed  by  taking  1000  c.c.  of  water,  rendering  it  alka- 


LEAD COI'I'KR — ZINC — BACTKRIA.  2O/ 

line  with  solid  sodium  carbonate  free  from  arsenic,  and  then 
evaporating  it  in  a  porcelain  dish  almost  to  dryness.  Three  c.c. 
of  water  are  introduced  into  a  test  tube  and  strongly  acidulated 
with  hydrochloric  acid.  A  small  piece  of  copper  foil  is  dropped 
into  the  tube.  The  liquid  in  the  tube  is  boiled,  and  if  the  copper 
remains  untarnished  the  reagent  is  free  from  arsenic  and  the 
test  is  proceeded  with.  The  residue  from  the  water  is  rendered 
acid  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  added  to  the  reagent  in  the 
tube,  when  it  is  again  boiled  for  several  minutes.  If  arsenic  is 
present  it  will  form  a  steel  gray  coating  on  the  copper.  The 
copper  is  withdrawn,  placed  in  a  perfectly  clean  and  dry  tube. 
The  tube  is  gently  heated  near  where  the  copper  lies;  the 
arsenic  sublimes  and  collects  at  the  cool  end  of  the  tube.  The 
deposit  examined  with  a  microscope  will,  if  it  is  arsenic,  be  seen 
to  consist  of  octahedral  crystals. 

Lead  is  easily  detected  by  pouring  the  water  into  a  tall  glass 
cylinder  and  adding  a  few  drops  of  ammonium  sulphid.  If  lead 
be  present,  lead  sulphid  is  formed,  which  is  manifest  as  a 
brownish-black  precipitate.  This  precipitate  is  differentiated 
from  that  of  iron  in  not  dissolving  upon  acidulating  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  from  that  of  copper  in  not  dissolving  upon  the 
addition  of  potassium  cyanid. 

Copper  is  readily  detected  by  pouring  the  water  into  a  tall 
glass,  acidifying  it  with  acetic  acid,  adding  water  impregnated 
with  hydrogen  sulphid.  The  precipitate  closely  resembles  that 
of  lead,  but  may  be  differentiated  by  adding  about  one  c.c.  of  a 
strong  and  pure  solution  of  potassium  cyanid,  which  dissolves 
the  copper  precipitate,  while  the  lead  precipitate  remains  un- 
affected. 

/.inc  can  be  detected,  even  to  the  slightest  trace,  by  the  test 
proposed  by  Allen.  The  water,  rendered  slightly  ammoniacal,  is 
heated  to  boiling  and  then  filtered.  Upon  adding  a  few  drops  of 
potassium  ferrocyanid  to  the  clear  filtrate,  a  white  precipitate  is 
formed. 

J-Hological  examination  of  ivatcr  (for  method  see  Technic) : — 
Bacteriologic  examination  of  water  is  vastly  important  and 
may  afford  evidence  either  positive,  corroborative,  or  negative. 

Positive  Evidence.  Should  bacteriologic  examination  demon- 
strate the  presence  of  pathogenic  organisms,  the  water  is  to  be 


2O8  WATER. 

unhesitatingly  condemned.  This  may  be  the  case  in  typhoid 
fever,  cholera,  and  allied  diseases,  and  will,  probably,  be  equally 
conclusive  in  a  larger  number  of  cases  as  our  knowledge  of  the 
microbic  causes  of  disease  progresses,  and  improved  methods  com- 
bined with  more  extensive  observation,  enable  us  to  more  readily 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  pathogenic  forms.  It  seems  not 
improbable  that  dysentery  in  its  epidemic  form  may  have  a 
cause  demonstrable  by  bacteriologic  examination  ;  while  the 
demonstration  of  pathogenic  organisms  proves  the  danger  oi 
water,  it  may  be  considered  as  equally  positive  that  water  con- 
tinuously free  from  all  forms  of  bacteria,  at  least  containing  but 
few  and  these  of  the  saprophytic  variety,  is  probably  a  desirable 
water  from  a  sanitary  point,  provided,  of  course,  that  in  other 
ways  it  be  unassailable. 

Corroborative  Evidence.  The  abundant  presence  of  bacteria, 
more  especially  those  constantly  found  in  decomposing  fluid, 
bacilli,  cocci  and  spirilli,  are  considered  indicative  of  dissolved 
organic  matter,  and  prove  the  presence  of  suitable  pabulum  for 
the  sustenance  of  that  form  of  life,  and  hence  the  possible  pullu- 
lation  of  pathogenic  forms  should  they  gain  ingress.  When  the 
number  of  bacteria  have  suddenly  and  notably  increased  in  a 
given  water  supply  it  should  become  immediately  the  object  of 
suspicion.  As  an  example  of  the  importance  of  this  assertion 
one  has  but  to  study  Koch's  article  on  "  Water  Filtration  and 
Cholera;"  more  especially  the  reference  to  the  cholera  outbreak 
in  Altona.  (Zcitschrift fur  Hygiene  und  Infcctionskranklicitcn,  July 
7,  1^93.)  Attention  is  called  to  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number 
of  bacteria  to  1500  per  cubic  centimeter  immediately  preceding 
the  outbreak,  thus  indicating  a  faulty  water  supply,  the  fault  after- 
ward being  proven  to  have  originated  in  the  filter-beds.  This,  of 
course,  raises  the  question  of  the  number  of  bacteria  which  may 
be  present  without  endangering  the  consumer.  No  positive 
answer  can  be  given,  but  experience  with  water  supply  must  form 
the  basis  upon  which  opinions  can  be  formulated.  Thus,  should 
a  water  supply  under  observation  show  a  constant  presence  of 
bacteria,  say  to  the  number  of  fifty  or  one  hundred  to  the  cubic 
centimeter,  without  any  apparent  detriment  to  the  consumer,  a 
sudden  increase  of  three  or  four  times  the  normal  amount  must 
indicate  a  possible  source  of  infection.  If  the  number  present  in 


MICROSCOPIC    F.XAMINATION.  2OQ 

the  water  at  its  source  be  unaltered  and  there  be  a  marked  in- 
crease at  the  point  of  distribution,  the  storage  or  filtering  accom- 
modation must  be  the  source  of  danger,  and  if  the  number  at  the 
point  of  distribution  exceed  that  formed  in  the  unfiltered  water  the 
filter  must  be  sadly  at  fault.  It  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  ex- 
amples, for  any  one  watching  the  bacteriologic  condition  of  a 
water  supply  must  see  from  time  to  time  the  amount  of  cor- 
roborative evidence  which  his  examination  will  afford. 

Negative  Evidence.  It  has  been  the  preponderance  of  such 
evidence  which  has  brought  constant  biological  examination  of 
water  into  disrepute  ;  closer  observation  will,  however,  show  that 
the  fault  has  not  been  so  much  in  the  theory  involved  as  in  its 
faulty  application.  A  pint  bottle  of  water  all  from  one  source 
no  more  represents  a  water  supply,  biologically,  than  an 
aquarium  does  the  piscatorial  product  of  a  stream.  It  is  fre- 
quent and  repeated  examinations  of  one  and  different  samples 
from  varying  sources  which  offer  the  best  opportunity  for  de- 
tecting impurities,  as  in  this  every  unflushed  main,  blind-end 
pipe,  etc.,  may  be  shown  to  be  a  source  of  danger. 

A  constant  number  of  bacteria,  varying  but  little  in  kind,  and 
purely  saprophytic  in  action,  may  be  considered  as  negative 
evidence,  although,  as  already  indicated,  the  true  reading  maybe 
a  high  degree  of  purity,  certainly  not  the  reverse. 

Microscopic  Examination  of  Water.  Often  the  detection 
of  sewage  contamination  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  elements 
shown  to  be  present.  The  efficiency  of  the  te.st  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  care  manifested  in  its  execution.  Repeated 
examinations  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  positively  exclude 
sewage  ;  occasionally,  however,  a  single  carefully-made  exami- 
nation will  detect  its  presence.  Where  at  any  point  the  stream 
is  known  to  contain  sewage,  the  examination  should  begin  with 
water  selected  from  that  point,  and  the  character  of  the  mixture 
determined  as  a  starting  point.  With  this  information  to  start 
from,  but  little  difficulty  may  be  encountered.  The  bed  of  the 
stream  should  be  examined  from  place  to  place,  in  order  to  de- 
termine if  possible  whether  there  is  continuous  deposition  of 
the  contamination,  and,  if  such  be  the  case,  it  maybe  considered 
proven  that  any  sudden  increase  of  current  will  land  the  loosely 
packed  material  lower  in  the  water-course,  and  eventually  in  the 


21O  WATER. 

distributing  system.  The  same  care  should  be  taken  in  examin- 
ing the  water  itself,  from  point  to  point,  at  different  times  and 
under  varying  conditions  of  clearness.  As  a  rule,  the  best  results 
will  be  obtained  when  the  water  is  clear  and  the  current  as  rapid 
as  can  be  obtained  while  the  water  is  not  muddy  ;  if  the  water 
is  very  muddy  the  constant  sedimentation  which  is  going  on 
keeps  the  sewage  falling  to  the  bottom,  and  does  not  give  the 
proportionate  increase  that  one  would  be  likely  to  expect  with  the 
enormous  quantity  of  suspended  inorganic  matter  present.  It 
will,  however,  be  found  that  this  rule  varies  often,  and  that  the 
best  results  will  depend  upon  frequent  examination  rather  than 
selected  times  for  study. 

For  the  examination  a  good  half-inch  and  quarter-inch  or  one- 
sixth-inch  objectives  will  be  needed,  and  preferably  artificial  light. 
The  water  to  be  examined  is  taken  from  a  point  where  the  bed 
is  shallow,  but  the  current  not  swift,  if  such  a  point  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  if  possible  the  quantity  taken  is  large  ;  to  prevent 
the  carrying  of  a  large  bulk,  where  it  can  be  so  arranged,  partial 
sedimentation  is  allowed  to  take  place  at  the  point  of  collection  ; 
this  can  be  arranged  for  by  taking  a  barrel  with  a  tap  about  two 
inches  above  the  bottom  on  one  side,  so  arranged  that  the  water 
can  be  drawn  off,  all  but  a  small  quantity,  which  contains  the 
sediment.  Twelve  hours  will  be  all  the  time  which  will  be 
needed  for  the  deposit  of  the  sewage  in  the  barrel.  After  the 
supernatant  fluid  is  drawn  off,  the  remaining  water,  which  con- 
tains the  sediment,  is  transferred  to  a  large  bottle  or  jug  and 
removed  to  the  laboratory.  Here  it  is  placed  in  a  conical  glass, 
such  as  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  and  further 
sedimentation  allowed  to  take  place.  In  very  warm  weather, 
or  if  the  amount  of  sediment  be  small,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
hasten  the  process  or  to  make  it  more  thorough,  in  which  case  the 
candlewick  filter  used  in  urinary  analysis  will  be  found  use- 
ful ;  this  is  constructed  as  follows :  A  tall  conical  glass,  or 
graduate,  is  filled  with  the  water  to  be  examined;  a  large 
U-tube  of  glass  is  then  filled  with  a  strand  of  candlewick, 
drawn  through  the  entire  length  of  the  U-tube,  and  of  such 
si/.e  as  to  fit  quite  snugly  ;  the  U-tube,  or  an  ordinary  glass 
tube  bent  for  the  purpose  may  be  used,  is  then  inverted  and 
allowed  to  hang  over  the  side  of  the  vessel,  as  shown  in  the 


TO    DETERMINE    SOURCE. 


21  I 


Kin.  (., 


water  (lows   out   toc.\ti:i 
not  shown.     The  sediment 
be  collected  on  wick  over  poii 


cut.  By  capillary  action  and  siphonage  the  fluid  is  emptied 
from  the  glass,  and  all  the  suspended  matter  collected  on  the 
lower  end  of  the  candlewick,  the  end 
which  was  in  the  glass.  The  sediment 
is  now  placed  upon  microscope  slides 
and  examined  in  the  usual  manner. 

There  are  some  organic  elements 
which  are  readily  detected,  and  these 
must  be  sought  for  with  great  care. 
Striped  and  unstriped  muscle  fiber,  espe- 
cially the  former,  may  be  considered  as 
positive  evidence  of  contamination.  Oc- 
casionally small  aggregations  of  carti- 
lage cells  will  be  found,  or  remnants 

Of  yellow   elastic   tissue,   and,   though    leSS  CANDI  I.-WICK   FMTF.K 

commonly,    such    animal    parasites    as    ^Conicai«Uiss.c<>iuaiiiinK wa 

*  '  6, Curved  glass  tube,contaii 

usually  accompany  sewage. 

To  Determine  ilic  Source  of  Water. 
This  is  often  a  most  important  factor  and 
frequently  attended  with  great  difficulty.  Wells,  cisterns,  cess- 
pools, cellars,  etc.,  are  often  found  to  contain  water  which  is 
evidently  an  addition  or  from  a  new  source,  and  it  may  be 
important,  as  in  cellars  or  in  wells  where  the  addition  has 
been  proven  to  be  a  contamination,  to  find  whence  it  comes. 
If  the  source  be  suspected  and  accessible  some  chemical  may 
be  added,  and,  if  the  suspicion  be  correct,  the  added  element 
may  be  detected  in  the  water  under  examination. 

Leffmann  and  Beam  advise  the  use  of  lithium  or  strontium 
chlorid,  both  easily  detected  by  ordinary  methods.  Fluorescein 
has  been  used,  and,  indeed,  any  of  the  so-called  anilin  dyes, 
derivatives  of  coal  tar,  may  be  found  useful.  Fluorescein  pos- 
sesses a  highly  distinctive  value  in  that  a  very  small  quantity 
will  yield  color  to  an  enormous  body  of  water. 

Where  the  source  be  not  suspected  the  problem  becomes 
most  difficult.  A  knowledge  of  the  subsoil  water  in  the  sur- 
rounding earth  is  important,  and  if  the  product  under  investiga- 
tion differs  materially  from  the  normal  subsoil  water  it  becomes 
evident  that  some  other  source  must  be  sought. 

Leffmann  and   Beam   quote  the   following  figures  as  parts  of 


WATER. 

results  obtained  by  them  in  association  with  Mr.  Chas.  F.  Ken- 
nedy, Chief  Inspector  to  the  Board  of  Health,  Philadelphia: — 

Cellar  ll'.itfr. 

City  Stiffly.  No.l.  No.  2.  No.  3. 

Total  solids '115  140  661  60 

Odor  0:1  heating,      .    .faint  faint  strong  urinnus 

Clilorm 4                           6.4  77.0  128.0 

N.  as  nitrates,  .    ...      07                       i.o                   35  none 

N.  as  nitrites,  ....    none  present  present  none 

Subsequent  investigation  showed  that  sample  No.  I  came 
from  a  leaky  hydrant  and  had  traversed  twenty-two  feet  of 
subsoil.  Sample  No.  2  came  from  a  leaky  drain,  as  was  pre- 
sumed from  the  high  degree  of  impurity.  "  In  the  third  sample 
the  high  chlorin,  strong  urinous  odor,  and  absence  of  nitrates  and 
nitrites  pointed  unmistakably  to  recent  and  profuse  contamina- 
tion with  sewer  water." 


CHAPTER  VI. 
AIR. 

In  a  sense  air  may  be  considered  one  of  the  foods,  as 
everything  which  enters  into  the  nutrition  and  assists  in  the 
building  up  of  new  tissues  or  the  repair  of  old,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  heat  and  force,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  food.  Air  is  composed,  approximate]}',  of 
seventy-nine  and  a  fractional  part  of  nitrogen  and  twenty 
parts  of  oxygen,  by  volume,  a  trace  of  carbon  dioxid  some 
ammonia,  and  aqueous  vapor.  In  large  manufacturing  districts 
other  gases  will  be  found  frequently  present  in  the  air.  The 
wonderful  faculty  which  the  air  possesses  for  purifying  itself  by 
currents  and  exposure  to  oxidizing  influences  is  such  as  to 
render  it  always  pure,  provided  the  purifying  process  is  not 
resisted  by  mechanical  means,  usually  the  outgrowth  of  man's 
ingenuity.  In  the  absence  of  this  purifying  process  the  earth 
would  be  surrounded  by  a  stratum  sufficiently  thick  and  con- 
taining impurities  in  such  enormous  quantities  as  to  be  fatal  to 
all  forms  of  animal  life. 

Impurities  in  Air  and  their  Source. 

The  contamination  of  air  due  to  respiration  is  vastly  im- 
portant. Formerly  the  percentage  of  carbon  dioxid  was  con- 
sidered the  test  for  impurity  due  to  respiration,  but  more 
recent  experiments  seem  to  prove  that  organic  matter,  either 
as  gas  or  minute  suspended  particles,  is  vastly  more  im- 
portant. Each  adult  gives  off  on  an  average  about  .62 
cubic  foot  of  carbon  dioxid  per  hour;  the  adult  male  exceeds 
this  amount,  while  the  female,  children,  and  the  aged  pro- 
duce less.  The  presence  of  this  product  of  respiration  in  the 
air  is  so  modified  by  natural  ventilation  that  accurate  observa- 
tions cannot  be  adduced.  It  would  seem  that  in  habitations  the 
excess  is  reached  during  the  sleeping  hours,  therefore  mostly 
at  night,  while  in  the  industrial  occupations,  factories,  etc.,  the 

21  ; 


214  AIR- 

maximum  is  reached  during  the  hours  of  highest  humidity,  as 
the  aqueous  vapor  retains  the  organic  matter;  \vhen  continuous 
labor  is  going  on  both  day  and  night,  ventilation  equalizes  or 
reduces  the  excess  of  the  day.  Hospitals,  barracks,  prisons, 
and  stables  contain  the  largest  percentage  of  carbon  dioxid. 
Thus  de  Chaumont  states  that,  with  outside  air  containing  less 
than  .5  parts  in  1000,  a  barrack  would  probably  show  over  1.5 
parts,  a  hospital  about  one  part,  and  a  prison  two  to  three 
parts  per  1000  volumes.  The  one  benevolent  feature  of  carbon 
dioxid  is  its  rapid  diffusibility,  in  this  respect  being  vastly 
more  active  than  the  aqueous  vapor  and  organic  matter  exhaled 
from  the  body. 

Organic  Matter.  Exactly  what  this  organic  matter  is  which  is 
given  off  by  the  body  is  not  known.  A  certain  quantity  we  may 
recognize  as  parts  of  the  histologic  structures  of  the  body,  such 
as  hair,  epithelial  cells,  and  granular  detritus  the  products  of 
organic  life.  These  have  not,  however,  any  significance  as 
air  contaminants;  it  is  the  products  exhaled,  probably  as  gases, 
or  certainly  partly  in  a  vaporous  condition,  from  the  skin  and 
mucous  membranes.  These  products  do  not  include  the 
aqueous  vapors  given  off  by  the  skin  and  lungs,  the  aggre- 
gate of  which  varies  between  thirty  and  forty  ounces  during 
the  twenty-four  hours.  The  presence  of  organic  matter  is 
readily  demonstrated,  although  its  character  is  unknown. 
Thus,  if  the  products  of  respiration,  as  contained  in  the  ex- 
pired air,  be  passed  through  permanganate  of  potassium  solu- 
tion they  decolorize  it ;  if  passed  through  sulphuric  acid,  they 
darken  it  ;  if  condensed  in  chilled  receivers  along  with  a 
certain  amount  of  aqueous  vapor,  an  offensive  product  results 
which  is  nitrogenous  and  oxidizable ;  if  dissolved  in  water, 
a  fetid  odor  is  given  off.  If  hygroscopic  structures,  such  as 
clothing  and  absorbent  walls,  paper,  floors,  etc.,  be  brought  in 
contact  with  the  exhaled  product,  it  imparts  a  recognizable 
odor  to  them.  The  race  odor,  characteristic  of  the  negro,  for 
example,  is  probably  nothing  more  than  an  organic  impurity 
which  we  detect  more  readily  than  the  product  of  our  own 
vitality. 

Not  knowing  its  composition  except  that  it  is  nitrogenous  and 
oxidizable,  we  have  no  test  available  for  its  quantitative  estima- 


ORGANIC    MATTKK.  215 

tion.  It  usually,  although  by  no  means  invariably,  exists  as  a 
proportionate  impurity  with  the  carbon  clioxid.  Thus  when  the 
latter  reaches  .8  parts  in  the  1000,  the  organic  matter  becomes 
recognizable  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  when  the  carbon  dioxicl 
reaches  i  part  per  1000,  the  odor  becomes  quite  marked.  While 
this  may  be  true,  it  is  not  always  so  by  any  manner  of  means. 
Thus  the  writers  have  observed,  in  the  "  slums,"  rooms  witli  wide 
open  windows  offensively  laden  with  what,  to  the  senses,  seemed 
to  be  organic  products  of  respiration,  while  the  air  contained 
but  little  more  carbon  dioxid  than  the  outside  atmosphere. 
This  has  been  presumed  to  arise  from  faulty  or  partial  diffusion 
of  the  organic  matter,  while  the  CO2  diffuses  rapidly.  The  fact 
that  in  a  single  closed  apartment  certain  areas  would  be  appar- 
ently more  heavily  laden  than  others,  quite  independent  of  heat 
or  air  currents,  has  been  explained  as  depending  upon  the  pre- 
sence of  organic  matter  in  clouds,  thus  assuming  that  it  exists 
in  the  atmosphere  in  a  condition  analogous  to  that  of  water. 
Another  consideration  not  often  presented  is  the  possibility  of 
organic  matter  increasing  in  intensity  after  the  removal  of  all 
occupants  from  the  room.  This  is  largely  attributed  to  the 
presence  of  bacteria.  Thus  it  has  been  found  that  the  presence 
of  organic  matter  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  number  of  bac- 
teria present  in  the  atmosphere;  furthermore,  where  the  bacteria 
belong  to  the  bacillus,  coccus  or  spirillum  group  the  contamina- 
tion is  probably  more  recent,  while  the  mold  fungi  come  as  the 
above  disappear  from  the  air  and  colonize  by  sedimentation  on 
surrounding  objects.  Reinhabitation  of  rooms  again  diffuses 
the  bacteria  proper  and  ventilation  removes  the  molds  ;  this  is 
probably  brought  about  by  the  rise  in  temperature  which  takes 
place  when  the  room  is  again  occupied,  the  molds  not  growing 
in  such  luxuriance  under  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  ot 
bacteria  proper.  While  an  apparent  relation  seems  to  subsist 
between  the  organic  matter  and  the  biologic  condition  of  the 
air,  no  apparent  connection  can  be  demonstrated  between  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid  and  bacteria.  It  would  therefore  ap- 
pear that  examination  of  the  air  for  bacteria  might  approximate 
the  contamination  by  organic  matter,  or  -r/<r  t't'rsii. 

But   little  is  known    of  the   significance   of  organic   matter  or 
bacteria  in  the  air,  provided,  of   course,  that  the   latter    are  not 


2l6  AIR. 

members  of  the  pathogenic  group.  As  the  organic  matter  is 
undergoing  oxidation,  it  must  of  necessity  be  depriving  the  air 
of  oxygen  and  thus  lessening  the  standard  of  purity,  aside  from 
the  injurious  action  which  it  exerts  per  se.  In  considerable 
quantities  it  must  not  only  lessen  the  available  oxygen,  but  mani- 
fest itself  as  an  actual  poison.  As  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
anything  which  lessens  the  standard  of  normal  tends  to  in- 
crease the  ability  with  which  bacteria  secure  lodgment  in  the 
economy,  and  as  bacteria  form  a  constant  associate  contami- 
nant with  the  organic  matter,  one  can  but  regard  the  combination 
as  one  imminently  prejudicial  to  health.  No  one  hesitates  to 
pronounce  suspended  or  dissolved  organic  matter  in  water  a  con- 
demnable  contamination,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  valid  reason 
for  making  an  exception  in  the  case  of  air.  The  symptoms  pro- 
duced by  the  noxious  agent  are  headache,  dulness  of  perception, 
a  sense  of  drowsiness,  and  a  general  feeling  of  malaise.  These 
are  symptoms  experimentally  produced,  as  no  observations  in 
actual  practice  have  been  made  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  excess 
of  carbon  dioxid  is  usually  present,  and  the  symptoms  of  the 
two  arc  combined.  It  would  seem  that  where  one  is  long 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  carbon  dioxid  alone,  the  symptoms, 
if  it  be  sufficiently  concentrated  to  induce  symptoms,  rapidly 
disappear  when  the  cause  is  removed ;  with  organic  matter, 
however,  the  depression,  headache,  and  muscular  weakness  in- 
duced endure  for  several  clays,  and  are  not  infrequently  followed 
by  diarrhea  and  gastro-enteric  manifestations  attributable  to  the 
swallowing  of  suspended  matter  lodged  in  the  throat  and  mouth 
or  to  the  swallowing  of  oral  mucus  which  has  absorbed  the 
noxious  agent  during  respiration. 

Products  of  Combustion.  Modern  heating,  even  in  its  cruder 
forms,  precludes  contamination  of  the  atmosphere  from  ordinary 
fires.  In  the  industries,  however,  carbon  and  its  combinations 
with  oxygen  and  sulphur,  sulphur  and  its  combinations  with 
oxygen,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  arsenic,  copper,  lead,  and  occa- 
sional]}- xinc,  find  entrance  to  the  atmosphere  either  in  gaseous 
combinations  or  as  minutely  divided  particles.  Vitiation  from 
light  production  is  the  most  common  contaminant  which  results 
from  combustion  in  habitations  and  often  in  manufactories,  more 
especially  those  one  might  designate  as  the  "sedentary  occupa- 


CONTAMINATION    BY    TRADES.  2  I/ 

tions,"  such  as  shirt-making  for  women,  jewelers'  engraving,  or 
clerical  occupations  for  men.  In  these,  often  conducted  in  badly 
ventilated  and  poorly  lighted  apartments,  vitiation  by  artificial 
lighting  is  often  a  matter  of  great  importance.  In  this  country 
we  have  to  deal  only  with  gas,  oil,  and  electricity  as  lighting 
agents.  The  latter,  of  course,  by  the  incandescent  system,  adds 
nothing  to  the  surrounding  air  ;  by  arc  light,  however,  it  is 
claimed  that  ozone  is  produced,  which,  as  the  nascent  form  of 
oxygen,  offers  no  objections,  indeed,  may  be  considered  a  desir- 
able feature.  Oil  as  an  illuminant  is  now  in  very  general  use, 
and  if  consumed  in  properly  constructed  lamps  yields  carbon, 
carbon  dioxid,  and  water ;  the  quantity  of  carbon  is  inestimably 
small  in  well-cleaned  lamps,  and  excess  in  production  is  due  to 
faulty  draft  or  dirty  wick.  For  every  pound  of  oil  consumed 
an  equal  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  is  produced  and  about  thirty 
cubic  feet  of  carbon  dioxid,  while  for  the  combustion  over  one- 
hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  will  be  consumed.  Coal  gas 
from  a  fish-tail  burner  will  produce  for  every  cubic  foot  consumed 
two  cubic  feet  of  carbon  dioxid  and  a  trace  of  pure  carbon  ;  if 
a  Bunsen  burner  be  used  the  consumption  of  the  carbon  will  be 
complete,  but  the  quantity  of  carbon  dioxid  will  proportionately 
be  increased.  The  Argand  and  Welsbach  burners  consume 
more  gas,  the  former  giving  off  more  pure  carbon  and  the  latter 
more  carbon  dioxid  than  the  fish-tail  burner. 

Contamination  by  Trades  \  organic  matter  from  other  sources. 
Aside  from  the  contamination  already  referred  to  as  due  to  pro- 
cesses of  combustion,  other  contaminations  arise  from  slaughter 
houses,  markets,  etc.  These  include  so-called  odor  nuisances, 
in  which  no  positively  injurious  element  can  be  demonstrated. 
as  e.g.,  glue  factories;  whatever  else  may  be  true  of  these,  no 
one  not  accustomed  to  them  can  tolerate  their  disagreeable  odor. 
In  conversation  with  an  expert  employed  by  the  manufacturers 
of  fertilizers  near  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  he  expressed  the 
opinion  that  their  workers  were  as  free  from  disease  as  laborers 
engaged  in  any  other  industrial  pursuit.  While  this  may 
be  true,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  employees  are 
working  from  choice,  /.  c.,  the  men  are  only  those  who  can  toler- 
ate the  prevailing  condition  and  find  no  physical  detects  follow. 
This  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance,  and  statisticians  rarely  con- 
14 


2l8  AIR. 

sider  it.  Nursing  cannot  be  considered  as  a  healthful  employ- 
ment, and  yet  from  a  rather  extensive  experience  it  does  not 
seem  that  nurses  suffer  as  the  result  of  their  chosen  occupation. 
Why  ?  It  seems  probable  that  the  selective  affinity,  which  led 
to  the  choice  formed  a  part  of  the  resistance  which  permitted 
a  continuance  of  the  labor.  Conclusions  are  often  drawn  from 
too  superficial  observations.  In  the  sanitary  supervision  of  a 
large  sugar  manufactory  no  complaints  of  ill  health  due  to  the 
odors  or  atmosphere  which  pervades  the  building  has  come  to 
the  writers'  notice,  but  many  men  who  have  been  stevedores  and, 
therefore,  accustomed  to  the  most  laborious  exertion,  have  de- 
clined proffered  work  in  the  refinery,  stating  that  they  could  not 
eat  when  subjected  to  the  odors  incident  to  the  manufacture  of 
sugar.  In  other  words,  a  generous  percentage  of  laboring  men 
could  not,  unless  accustomed  by  an  induced  tolerance,  enjoy 
health  in  the  presence  of  noxious  odors.  Besides,  as  these 
odors  largely  arise  from  the  presence  in  the  atmosphere  of 
organic  matter  in  varying  stages  of  decomposition,  they  must  of 
necessity  be  injurious  to  public  health.  What  is  true  of  these 
must  be  doubly  true  of  sewerage  emanations.  And  no  amount 
of  argument  or  misinterpreted  facts  can  remove  the  observa- 
tion, almost  daily  brought  to  our  notice,  of  lost  appetite,  head- 
ache, nausea,  and  even  vomiting,  the  sole  origin  of  which  was 
the  temporary  sewage-laden  air  incident  to  the  cleansing  of  a 
noxious  cesspool.  These  odors  are  largely  products  of  the 
microorganisms  of  decomposition,  products  held  either  in  solu- 
tion or  suspension  in  air,  and  are  again  comparable  to  similar  if 
not  the  same  elements  retained  in  suspension  or  solution  in  water. 
They  cannot  be  baneful  in  one  and  innocent  in  the  other  in- 
stance. 

The  air  of  marshes,  while  usually  considered  as  possessing 
specific  impurities,  hardly  differs  from  other  decomposing  or- 
ganic matter  (vegetable)  where  there  is  presence  of  heat  and 
moisture.  The  excess  of  moisture  probably  deters  dissemina- 
tion of  the  poison  until  saturation  occurs,  and  then  the  products 
of  decomposition  are  poured  forth  in  enormous  quantities. 
Another  potent  agent  in  complicating  the  process  is  the  change 
of  temperature  incident  to  the  revolving  cycle  of  the  twenty- 
four  hours.  Thus,  with  the  advent  of  night  the  reduction  of 


EMANATIONS    FROM    MARSHES    AND    MADE    GROUND.  2Kj 

temperature  leads  to  several  changes,  e. .</•.,  (ij  cooling  of  the 
water  enables  it  to  retain  gaseous  elements,  which  would  be 
given  off  at  higher  temperatures  ;  (2)  a  heavy  protecting  blanket 
of  aqueous  vapor  checks  radiation  and  faciliates  the  growth  of 
parasitic  life  in  the  marsh-water  and  also  precludes  the  dissemina- 
tion of  gases  by  lessening  if  not  temporarily  abolishing  all  currents 
toward  higher  land.  With  the  advent  of  heat,  in  the  morning 
hours,  poisons  engendered  during  the  night  are  poured  forth  ; 
the  aqueous  vapor  or  temporary  cloud  becomes  again  a  part  of 
moving  air  currents  and  floats  off  with  the  poisons,  which  have 
become  a  part  of  it  during  the  night ;  the  marsh,  again  heated, 
gives  off  the  gaseous  organic  products  which  have  been 
developed  during  the  cooler  hours,  just  as  ammonia  water 
loses  its  ammonia  by  warming.  Let  us  see  the  importance 
of  this  ;  what  inferences  can  be  drawn  ?  In  a  malarial  area,  if 
the  above  be  correct,  the  early  morning  and  late  evening  hours 
must  be  more  dangerous,  and  the  midday  and  afternoon  less 
noxious  hours — the  evening  hours  fraught  with  danger  in  the 
marsh  or  lowland,  the  morning  most  unsafe  in  the  path  of  the 
evolving  currents,  while  during  the  middle  hours  of  the  day 
dissemination  is  rapidly  progressing  and  the  moving  currents 
give  air  containing  a  minimum  of  organic  matter.  Facts  bear 
out  the  theory.  In  malarial  districts  early-to-bed  and  late-to- 
rise  individuals  suffer  least  from  their  environment,  the  reverse 
being  equally  true.  A  Mississippi  river  pilot  informed  the 
writer  that  no  crew  could  continuously  stand  night  and  morn- 
ing runs  through  malarial  areas,  and  the  owner  of  a  large 
plantation  near  Memphis  stated  that  whites  who  went  to  bed 
early  and  slept  late  escaped  malarial  influence  for  an  indefinite 
period.  His  facts  were  correct,  but  his  belief  that  the  sleep  was 
the  determining  factor  in  the  temporary  immunity  was  in- 
correct. 

Emanations  from  made  ground,  which  contains  organic  matter 
in  the  shape  of  decomposing  cast-off  clothing,  old  shoes,  waste 
and  street  dirt,  differ  from  other  organic  air  contaminants  only 
in  degree  and  the  amount  of  moisture  present,  and  deserve  the 
same  consideration,  pro  rain,  with  pollutions  from  marshes  and 
noxious  industries.  The  same  is  true  of  products  arising  each 
autumn  from  the  decaying  vegetation  incident  to  the  season. 


22O  AIR. 

Carbon  Dioxid  or  CO.,  is  constantly  present  in  the  air,  although 
in  an  extremely  small  amount,  in  the  open  air,  from  .1,  possibly 
to  .3  or  even  .5,  and  in  closed  rooms,  badly  ventilated,  it  not 
infrequently  exceeds  one  per  one  thousand  volumes.  Atone  time 
great  importance  was  attached  to  its  presence,  and  air  contamina- 
tion was  considered  as  directly  proportionate  to  the  amount  found. 
It  was  presumed  to  have  been  the  active  agent  in  the  "  Black- 
hole  of  Calcutta,"  where  out  of  146  prisoners  placed  in  at  night, 
23  were  alive  in  the  morning,  but  "  putrid  fever"  (?)  carried  off 
some  of  the  survivors  ;  and  in  the  death  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  passengers  on  a  steamer  where  the  hatches  were  battened 
down  for  a  single  night.  In  the  first  place,  these  commonly  cited 
examples  prove  nothing,  as  no  observation  of  the  air  condition  is 
available,  and  in  the  second  place  they  have  no  more  bearing  on 
sanitary  science  than  examples  of  "  leaden  hail  "  on  a  battle 
field  demonstrate  the  noxious  effects  of  the  metal  upon  public 
health  ;  it  is  not  probable  that  the  CO2  was,  in  either  case,  the 
active  agent. 

The  given  percentage  of  carbon  dioxid  which  is  perceptible 
must  vary  enormously;  besides,  if  an  individual  be  in  an  atmos- 
phere which  is  slowly  becoming  vitiated  by  the  gradual  introduc- 
tion of  carbon  dioxid,  he  is  not  conscious  of  the  change,  the 
system  either  adapting  itself  to  the  poison  circulating  in  the  air,  or 
the  development  of  symptoms  is  so  slow  that  the  individual  is 
scarcely  aware  of  the  change,  or,  and  this  is  most  likely,  the 
symptoms  produced  are  anesthetic,  and  made  up  from  more 
factors  than  the  dioxid  alone. 

Pettenkofer  and  Yoit  observed  no  discomfort  in  an  atmosphere 
containing  t.en  parts  of  carbon  dioxid  to  the  thousand  volumes  ; 
Dr.  Smith  observed  diminished  circulatory  activity  and  accelera- 
tion of  the  respiration  movements  in  the  presence  of  much 
greater  amounts.  It  seems  not  improbable  that,  in  the  absence 
of  organic  matter,  carbon  dioxid  rarely,  if  ever,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  becomes  a  dangerous  air  contaminant.  It  may,  and 
probably  does,  act  by  displacing  the  oxygen,  and  robs  the  air  in 
this  manner  as  much  as  it  contaminates.  It  is  not  probable  that 
carbon  dioxid  becomes  dangerous  until  it  reaches  a  very  con- 
centrated form,  probably  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  or  even  fifty 
per  cent.  However,  air  containing  above  1.5  volume  per  thous- 


DISEASES    DUE   TO    ATMOSPHERIC    IMPURITIES.  221 

and  is  to  be  considered  sufficiently  impure  to  be  rejected  by  the 
sanitarian,  as  the  action  may  be  cumulative  in  character,  and,  as 
an  excreted  product  of  vital  processes,  its  retention  might  lessen 
vital  resistance,  and  in  this  manner  act  as  a  predisposing  cause 

of  disease. 

Carbon  monoxid,  or  CO,  is  highly  poisonous  and  its  poisonous 
character  is  rendered  more  dangerous  by  its  possessing  no  odor. 
The  percentage  present  in  the  atmosphere,  in  order  to  give  rise- 
to  symptoms,  may  be  very  small.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
when  it  reaches  from  five  to  ten  or  twenty  parts  per  thousand  it 
will  prove  rapidly  fatal  to  human  life.  Very  small  percentages 
kill  mice  and  rabbits  and  other  lower  animals.  The  gas  is  largely 
intermixed  with  other  gases  and  used  for  illuminating  purposes  ; 
in  this  country  it  is  used  mixed  with  sufficient  coal  gas  (carbon 
monoxid  is  known  as  water  gas)  to  give  the  mixture  a  distinct  odor 
before  it  is  delivered  for  lighting  purposes.  It  has  been  proposed 
to  give  it  an  odor  by  the  use  of  pyridin  or  other  volatile 
odorous  materials.  Coal  gas  may,  of  course,  be  present  in  the 
air  in  sufficient  quantities  to  prove  injurious  to  health,  or  if  its 
presence  be  protracted,  or  if  it  be  concentrated,  may  cause  death, 
exactly  as  the  carbon  monoxid  of  which  it  is  largely  composed. 

Other  Gases.  Among  the  other  gases  which  ma}'  be  present 
in  the  air  and  give  rise  to  difficulty  are  hydrogen  siilphid,  ceir- 
bnrcttcd  hydrogen,  carbon  bisu/p/iid,  and  mixtures  composed  of 
these  and  others  less  frequent.  These  largely  arise  in  industrial 
pursuits  and  have  very  little  practical  bearing.  They  are,  of 
course,  noxious  in  proportion  to  quantity  present,  and  probably 
assist  other  impurities  in  the  induction  of  diseases.  In  mines 
we  have  the  consideration  of  gases  due  to  the  oxidation,  either 
slowly  or  by  explosion,  of  the  carbon  present ;  also  the  pres- 
ence of  carburetted  hydrogen  and  other  gases.  Their  source  does 
not  alter  the  character  of  their  action,  and  they  are  there  only 
more  noxious  than  elsewhere  by  reason  of  the  deficient  ventila- 
tion which  usually  predominates. 

Diseases  Attributable  to  Atmospheric  Impurities.  For- 
merly air  was  believed  to  be  the  most  prolific  agent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  disease.  This,  no  doubt,  arose  from  deficient  knowl- 
edge of  disease  etiology,  and  as  little  was  known  of  the  air,  the 
sum  of  the  two  noughts  was  believed  to  be  enormous.  As  we 


222  AIR. 

progressed  in  our  knowledge  of  diseases  and  their  causes,  as 
humoral  pathology  disappeared,  by  exclusion,  many  of  the  dis- 
eases attributed  to  the  air  were  proven  to  have  arisen  from  other 
causes,  so  that  to-day  the  air  is  looked  upon  almost  exclusively 
as  a  carrier  only. 

Parasitic  Diseases.  The  diseases  which  are  most  prominent  and 
give  rise  to  most  trouble,  in  connection  with  the  air  as  a  carrier, 
are  all  those  diseases  due  to  animal  or  vegetable  parasites,  and 
which  we  have  been  pleased  to  speak  of  as  contagious  or  infec- 
tious diseases.  Thus,  tuberculosis,  smallpox,  scarlet  fever,  and 
similar  diseases  can  undoubtedly  be  communicated  through  the 
atmosphere.  Not  only  is  this  true  of  the  highly  contagious  dis- 
eases, but  it  has  been  proven  that  skin  diseases  may  be  commu- 
nicated through  the  atmosphere.  The  vegetable  parasites  found 
in  the  various  forms  of  tinea,  including  the  tricophyton  tonsurans, 
have  been  obtained  from  the  atmosphere  in  the  ward  of  a  skin 
hospital  several  weeks  after  the  last  patient  had  been  discharged, 
thus  establishing  the  possible  spread  of  these  diseases  through 
an  infected  atmosphere.  The  constant  presence  of  the  microorgan- 
isms of  suppuration  in  the  air  demands,  to  a  large  extent,  the  use 
of  antiseptic  surgery  instead  of  aseptic  operative  procedures.  In 
the  presence  of  the  specific  organism  of  consumption  the  fibroid 
and  catarrhal  pulmonary  conditions  become  tubercular.  Whether 
he  cause  of  malaria  be  an  animal  or  vegetable  parasite  or  at 
poison,  the  spread  of  the  malady  through  the  air  as  a  carrier  is 
now  universally  admitted. 

Artisans"  Phthisis.  Prominent  among  diseases  due  to  impu- 
rities in  the  air  we  have  the  various  forms  of  fibroid  or  inter- 
stitial pneumonia,  or  artisans'  phthisis  ;  that  is  a  chronic  in- 
flammatory process  going  on  within  the  lungs  and  due  to 
the  inhalation  of  air  containing  some  suspended  matter  which 
is  deposited  in  the  lung  tissue  itself.  As  examples  of  this  we 
have  the  phthisis  of  the  glass  grinder,  the  needle  and  scissors 
grinder,  the  brick  maker,  stone  cutter,  a  form  of  the  disease 
occurring  in  laborers  in  shoddy  and  tobacco  manufactories  ;  in 
the  latter  instance  the  suspended  matter  acts  as  a  poison  as  well 
as  an  irritant. 

C/itii/iia!  Toxemia.  There  are  certain  inflammatory  processes 
due  to  the  handling  or  manufacture  of  chemicals,  such  as  bichro- 


ACCESSORY    OR    PREDISPOSING    ELEMENTS.  223 

mate  of  potash,  necrosis  due  to  mercury  and  phosphorus,  and  the 
chronic  forms  of  poisoning  due  to  lead,  as  seen  in  the  painter,  the 
manufacturer  of  lead  products,  and  in  the  plumber.  Another 
very  good  source  of  metallic  poisoning  is  arsenic  gaining  ingress 
to  the  air  of  rooms  from  wall  paper  which  has  been  colored  by 
some  of  the  arsenical  pigments,  and  occasionally  from  freshly 
painted  walls,  the  paint  pigment  containing  arsenic.  For  the 
most  part,  it  may  be  said  that  any  solid  material  floating  in  the 
air  and  subsequently  gaining  ingress  to  the  lung  will  infiltrate 
and  set  up  a  chronic  inflammatory  process  in  the  lung  itself,  or, 
as  is  the  case  with  arsenic,  induce  systemic  symptoms  identical 
with  those  brought  about  by  the  administration  of  the  drug  in 
the  usual  manner,  the  intensity  being  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  the  poison  inhaled.  Further,  it  is  to  be  noted,  that 
suspended  matters  in  the  air  will  reach  the  stomach,  by  the  swal- 
lowing of  oral,  nasal,  or  upper  pharyngeal  mucus  upon  which 
the  material  has  adhered. 

Accessory  or  Predisposing  Elements.  It  seems  most  probable 
that  many  air  contaminants  are  predisposing  elements  in  the 
spread  of  disease,  although  not  themselves  disease-producing. 
Thus  the  artisan's  phthisis  becomes  tuberculosis,  large  percent- 
ages of  organic  matter  favor  the  spread  of  typhus  fever,  diph- 
theria, diarrhea,  and,  possibly,  dysentery  and  cholera  ;  ulcerated 
sore  throat,  tonsillitis,  puerperal  fever,  pyemia,  septicemia,  and 
that  now  historical  disease,  hospital  gangrene — in  other  words, 
the  so-called  "  dirt  diseases"  are  most  frequently  associated  with 
air  impurities.  The  young  and  physically  weak  shop  girls, 
clerks,  and  others  under  similar  conditions,  may  find  air  impu- 
rities the  determining  factor  in  turning  the  scale  of  health. 
Deficient  supply  of  oxygen  constitutes  a  form  of  starvation  in 
which  it  is  probable  that  the  manifestations  are  cumulative  in 
character  and  for  any  given  time  so  obscure  that  no  positive 
conclusions  can  be  drawn.  As  respiration  is  not  a  purely  vol- 
untary process,  as  is  eating,  the  close  watching  of  factories, 
workshops,  and  the  day  home  of  the  laboring  classes,  who  are 
so  indifferent,  is  demanded  in  the  interest  of  public  health,  as 
much  as  the  sanitary  inspection  of  their  clothing  and  food. 


224  AIR- 

Air  Examination. 

Collection  of  Samples.  The  method  of  collecting  a  sample  of 
air  involves  as  much  care,  attention,  and  judgment  as  the  method 
for  collecting  a  sample  of  water.  The  vessel  selected  should  be 
a  wide-mouthed,  glass-stoppered  bottle,  having  a  capacity  of  about 
two  gallons.  The  bottle  is  kept  clean  and  is  made  ready  for  use 
by  rinsing  several  times  with  ordinary  clean  water  and  finally  with 
distilled  water.  In  collecting  the  sample,  fill  the  bottle  with 
distilled  water  which  has  been  boiled.  The  bottle  is  held  about 
four  feet  (the  mean  level  at  which  air  is  inspired)  from  the  ground 
and  the  water  poured  out;  as  the  water  flows  away,  the  air 
rushes  in  and  occupies  its  place.  Mr.  Angus  Smith  employs 
a  flexible  bellows,  provided  with  a  nozzle  which  reaches  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  As  the  air  in  the  bottle  is  pumped 
out  a  sample  of  the  air  desired  refills  the  bottle. 

Other  methods  are  utilized,  but  these  are  the  most  simple  and 
most  efficient. 

The  air  should  be  collected  at  the  time,  in  the  twenty-four 
hours,  of  its  maximum  impurity.  The  vessel  in  which  the  air 
is  collected  should  have  a  label  upon  which  is  stated  the 
date,  current  temperature  and  pressure,  locality,  and  any  other 
data  which  it  may  be  desired  to  record.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
transport  the  specimen  any  distance,  the  bottle  should  be  sealed. 

Analysis  of  Air. 

Estimation  of  Oxygen  in  the  Atmosphere.  The  amount  of 
oxygen  present  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  most  accurately  and 
conveniently  determined  by  the  process  known  as  eudiometn1. 

The  apparatus  required  for  the  performance  of  this  process 
are:  I.  A  gas-measuring  apparatus,  of  which  I  temple's  gas 
burette  may  be  selected  as  the  most  simple  and  the  easiest  man- 
ipulated instrument. 

ILinples  gas  burette  consists  of:  (a]  A  plain  glass  tube  of  a 
uniform  caliber  throughout,  except  at  the  upper  end  where  it  is 
slightly  enlarged.  At  the  lower  end  is  a  short  arm  to  which 
rubber  tubing  may  be  attached  so  as  to  connect  it  with  tube  l>. 
I  he  tube  is  fitted  to  a  round,  flat,  iron  base,  (li)  Another  tube, 
contracted  above  that  it  ma)r  fit  within  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing, 
and  thus  connection  established  with  the  apparatus  containing 
the  gas-absorbing  chemicals.  This  tube  is  irraduated  in  cubic 


ANALYSIS    OF    AIR — OXYGEN. 


225 


Fit;.    62. 


.7 


centimeters,  has  an  arm  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  tube, 
and  is,  in  a  like  manner,  fitted  to  an  iron  base. 

Absorption  Pipette.  The  apparatus  for  containing  the  chem- 
icals consists  of  a  fine 
glass  tube  on  which  is 
blown  two  bulbs,  and  the 
tube  bent  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illus- 
tration The  upper  bulb 
has,  at  least,  a  capacity 
of  100  c.c.,  and  the  lower 
one  a  capacity  of  1  50  c.c. 
This  apparatus  should 
be  mounted  upon  a 
wooden  stand,  with  a 
piece  of  enamel  form- 
ing a  background  to 
the  U-tube.  The  re- 
agent employed  for 
oxygen  is  a  solution  of  I 

pyiO^aillC    acid    (^  I  5 

grams)     and     caustic 

potash  (50  grams)  in  distilled  water. 

Performance  of  Test.  First  collect  and  measure  the  air 
to  be  analyzed;  place  tubes  a  and  b  upon  the  same  level, 
pour  water  into  tube  a  until  it  and  /;  are  half  full.  Raise 
tube  a  until  tube  b  is  completely  filled  ;  then  lower  tube  a  and 
as  the  water  refills  tube  a  the  atmospheric  air  fills  tube  b,  when  a 
pinch-cock  is  applied  to  the  rubber  tubing  at  the  upper  end  of 
tube  b,  thus  imprisoning  the  air. 

Secure  the  two  tubes  on  wooden  blocks  at  heights  necessary 
to  insure  the  same  water  level  in  each  tube,  and  thus  get  the 
same  pressure  within  the  tube  as  obtained  in  the  room.  Now 
read  off  in  c.c.  the  volume  of  air  in  tube  b. 

By  means  of  a  short  piece  of  rubber  tubing  connection  is 
established  between  tube/;  and  the  "  absorption  pipette."  The 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  should  be  as  short  as  possible.  Sufficient 
of  the  pyrogallic  acid  solution  to  fill  the  lower  bulb  is  poured  into 
the  apparatus,  and  the  height  to  which  the  solution  rises  marked 


APPARATUS  FOR  ESTIMATING   THE  AMOUNT  OF   OXYGEN 


226  AIR. 

oft"  on  the  enamel  background.  By  removing  the  clamps  com- 
munication between  tube  b  and  the  "absorption  pipette"  is 
established. 

To  bring  the  air  in  tube  b  in  contact  with  the  reagent  in  the 
"  absorption  pipette  "  elevate  tube  a  ;  the  water  flowing  into  tube 
b  forces  the  air  into  the  absorption  pipette.  This  is  repeated 
several  times,  that  the  solution  may  absorb  all  of  the  oxygen. 

Finally  the  air  is  drawn  into  tube  b,  great  care  being  observed 
to  see  that  the  level  of  the  pyrogallic  acid  solution  corresponds 
to  the  mark  upon  the  enamel  background.  The  level  of  the 
water  in  the  two  tubes  is  brought  to  the  same  point  as  it  was  in 
the  beginning  of  the  process,  and  the  volume  again  read  off  in 
c.c.  The  difference  between  the  first  and  second  readings  indi- 
cates the  quantity  of  oxygen  present  in  the  sample. 

To  conclude  the  test,  again  expose  the  gas  in  tube  b  to  the  acid 
solution ;  when  if  the  volume  remains  unchanged  all  the 
oxygen  is  absorbed  and  we  have  a  "constant  reading;"  other- 
wise the  process  must  be  continued  until  the  readings  become 
constant. 

It  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  successful  consummation  of 
the  test  that  no  outside  influences,  which  are  likely  to  affect  the 
temperature  of  the  tubes  or  of  the  "  absorption  pipette,"  be 
introduced  ;  therefore,  the  necessity  of  handling  the  tubes  by 
their  iron  bases  only. 

Ammonia  in  small  traces  (0.06  milligrams  per  cubic  meter)  is 
always  present  in  the  atmosphere,  in  combination  with  an  acid 
forming  usually  the  carbonate  or  chlorid,  though  occasionally 
it  is  found  as  the  nitrate  or  sulphate.  Ammonia  can  easily  be 
detected  by  moistening  strips  of  filter  paper  with  Nessler's 
reagent  and  exposing  the  strips  in  the  air.  Another  test  is  exe- 
cuted by  aspirating  known  quantities  of  air  through  pure  dis- 
tilled water  and  then  testing  for  the  ammonia  as  detailed  under 
the  chapter  on  water. 

Carbon  Monoxid  (CO),  when  subjected  to  Vogcl's  test,  can  be 
detected  even  though  it  exists  in  only  0.03  per  cent.  Into  the 
jar  containing  the  air,  pour  a  small  quantity  of  pure  distilled 
water;  prick  the  finger  and  allow  a  few  drops  of  blood  to  fall 
into  the  water.  Shake  the  bottle  vigorously  and  stand  it  aside 
for  several  minutes.  Remove  a  small  quantity  of  the  fluid  and 


ELEMENTS    OF    AIR — CARBON    DIOXID.  22/ 

examine  it  with  a  spectroscope  ;  if  carbon  monoxicl  be  present,  the 
lines  will  be  those  of  reduced  hemoglobin.  To  confirm  the  test 
add  a  few  drops  of  ammonium  sulphid solution,  shake  the  bottle, 
and  then  stand  it  aside  for  a  few  minutes.  If,  upon  spectroscopic 
examination,  any  change  has  taken  place  in  the  lines,  no  car- 
bonic oxid  was  present. 

Another  test,  based  upon  the  affinity  of  carbon  monoxid  for  the 
subchlorid  of  copper,  may  be  performed  by  first  exposing  copper 
turnings  and  copper  oxid  to  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  thus  mak- 
ing a  solution  of  the  subchlorid  of  copper,  and  then  treating  a 
definite  volume  of  air  with  this  solution.  The  loss  in  volume 
of  air  indicates  the  amount  of  carbon  monoxid.  When  carbon 
monoxid  is  present  in  less  than  one  per  cent,  this  test  has  no  value, 
and  we  must  depend  upon  Vogel's  test  to  determine  its  presence. 

Carbon  Dioxid.  For  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  CO2 
in  the  air,  Pettenkofer's  method,  though  somewhat  compli- 
cated, is  one  of  the  most  accurate.  To  test  the  air  by  this 
method,  we  fill  a  dry,  clean  jar  having  a  capacity  of  four  or  five 
liters,  with  the  air  which  is  to  be  examined,  then  pour  in  100  c.c. 
of  lime  water,  stopper  the  bottle  with  a  rubber  cap,  and  agitate 
thoroughly  for  several  minutes.  Pour  the  lime  water  into  a  four- 
ounce  stoppered  bottle  and  allow  to  stand.  Draw  off  with  a 
pipette  two  or  three  portions  of  25  c.c.  each  and  place  in  a  sepa- 
rate 100  c.c  flask.  A  few  drops  of  pheno-phthalein  solution 
added  to  the  contents  of  the  several  flasks  imparts  a  beautiful 
pink  color.  Then  add  drop  by  drop  oxalic  acid  solution,  1.41 
grams  to  the  liter  of  distilled  water,  until  the  pink  color  dis- 
appears. Note  the  number  of  c.c.  necessary  to  produce  this 
effect  in  each  of  the  several  flasks  and  obtain  the  mean. 

Determine  the  number  of  c.c.  of  the  oxalic  acid  solution 
necessary  to  neutralize  25  c.c.  of  lime  water.  The  difference  be- 
tween this  and  the  mean  number  of  c.c.  required  to  neutralize  the 
test  solutions  indicates  the  amount  of  CO.,  which  united  with 
the  lime-water  to  form  a  carbonate. 

A  simpler  test*  may  be  performed  by  obtaining  six  flasks 
having  capacity  respectively  of  150,  200,  250,  300,  350,  and  450 
c.c.  and  each  stoppered  with  a  rubber  cap;  15  c.c.  of  fresh  lime 

*  This  is  the  minimetric  method  of  Mr.  Anqus  Smith. 


228 


A  IK. 


or  baryta  water  is  to  be  placed  in  each  flask.  The  flasks  are 
agitated  for  several  minutes  and  the  smaller  one  showing  a  pre- 
cipitate noted.  If  it  be  the  one  of — 


150  c.c.  capacity,  it  indicates  .16  %  1.6  | 

er  1000 

200  c.c.         ' 

' 

.12  %   1.2 

IOOO 

250  c.c.         ' 

1 

.10  '/,   i.o 

'        IOOO 

300  c.c.         ' 

1 

.08  %  0.8 

IOOO 

350  c.c. 

' 

.07  %  0.7 

'        IOOO 

4  50  c.c. 

' 

•°5  %  o-5 

'       IOOO 

ONK  FORM  OF  PKOF.  WOI.PKKT'S  Am 
TKSTEK;  intended  for  the  constant  record 
ol  (JO,  in  the  air.  The  apparatus  consists 
of  a  frame  upon  which  is  supported  at  the 
upper  part,  upon  a  shelf,  a  cylindrical 
glass  jar  with  straight  sides  ;  in  this  jar 
is  a  "swimmer"  of  metal  which  accu- 
rately fits  the  sides  of  the  jar  with  suffi- 
cient looseness  to  permit  of  easy  rise 
and  fall  of  the  liquid  upon  which  it  is  to 
rest.  From  this  floater  a  siphon  tube 
passes  backward  over  the  side  of  the 
jar,  through  the  shelf,  and  discharges 
the  Contents  of  ihr  cistern  upon  the  cord, 
which  is  kept  taut  !>v  the  plumb  attached 
to  its  lower  end  The  discharge  is  regu- 
lated liy  a  micrometer  screw  Immedi- 
ately beneath  the  plumb  is  a  glass  re- 
criver,  into  which  f.dls  any  excess  of  the 
fluid  descending  upon  the  cord.  A  large 
p'-rcenlage  of  the  fluid  evaporates  from 
the  cord  and  docs  not  reach  the  glass 
l,.-l,,«-.  Immrdialrly  behind  the  cord, 
but  not  touching  it,  is  an  enamel  scale, 
upon  which  is  lettered  the  percentage 
mark  described  in  the  text. 


Prof.  Wolpert's  Air  Tester  con- 
sists (i)  of  a  glass  test  tube  12 
centimeters  in  length  and  20  milli- 
meters in  diameter ;  on  the  side  and 
near  the  bottom  of  the  tube  is  a  hori- 
zontal line  indicating  the  height  to 
which  three  c.c.  of  lime  water  will 
rise ;  the  bottom  is  whitened  with  a 
black  mark  stamped  upon  it.  (2)  A 
glass  tube  with  the  lower  end  con- 
stricted and  which  when  in  opera- 
tion is  immersed  in  the  lime  water 
until  all  the  air  in  the  bulb,  which  is 
fitted  to  the  upper  end  of  the  tube 
and  has  a  capacity  of  28  c.c.,  is 
forced  through.  The  tube  is  then 
carefully  withdrawn  and  the  bulb 
again  allowed  to  fill,  when  the  pro- 
cess is  repeated  until  the  black 
mark  upon  the  bottom  of  the  tube, 
when  looked  at  from  above,  is  ob- 
scured. Note  the  number  of  times 
the  air  was  discharged  through  the 
lime  water,  and  by  referring  to  Prof. 
Wolpert's  table,  which  is  supplied 
with  the  instrument,  the  amount  of 
CO 2  in  10,000  parts  of  air  may 
be  obtained. 

Another  form  of  air  tester,  also 
known  as  Prof.  Wolpert's,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  63.  The  principle  upon 


ANALYSIS    OF    AIR — CARBON    DIOXII).  22Q 

which  it  is  based  is  the  decolorizing  effect  of  carbonic  acid  upon 
the  red  solution  of  sodium  phenolphtalid. 

By  referring  to  the  scale  opposite  the  point  at  which  the 
solution  is  decolorized  we  readily  see  the  condition  of  the 
air. 

Pure,  indicates  that  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air 
is  from  0.5  to  0.7  per  mile.;  passable,  from  0.7  to  i.o  per  mile.; 
bad,  from  i.o  to  2.0  per  mile.;  very  bad,  from  2.0  to  4.0  per 
mile.  ;  extremely  bad,  more  than  4.0  per  mile. 

Directions  for  Use.  Hang  the  instrument  against  the  wall  out 
of  the  influence  of  sunlight  and  heating  appliances;  fill  the 
upper  glass  receptacle  half  full  of  the  reagent  and  let  it  stand  for 
an  hour  in  a  warm  room  with  pure  air  (not  in  the  sun)  to  remove 
some  air  bubbles,  which  may  have  been  formed  by  pouring  the 
liquid  into  the  vessel ;  slip  the  tube  of  the  rubber  bulb  over  the 
capillary  end  of  the  siphon  attached  to  the  end  of  the  swimmer 
and  insert  the  swimmer.  While  the  balloon  is  compressed  into 
the  liquid  remove  the  pressure  from  the  rubber  bulb  and  the 
siphon  will  fill  with  the  red  liquid.  Then  pour  a  measuring 
glass  full  of  the  oil  upon  the  red  liquid  around  the  swimmer  to 
prevent  evaporation  and  absorption  of  carbon  dioxid  ;  place  the 
glass  vessel  upon  the  frame  in  such  manner  that  the  liquid 
drops  over  the  channel  on  to  the  cord.  At  a  temperature  of  68° 
the  drops  should  fall  at  the  rate  of  a  drop  every  two  minutes  ; 
should  the  flow  be  slower  or  quicker,  it  can  be  adjusted  by  turn- 
ing the  micrometer  screw  in  the  desired  direction.  At  first 
some  of -the  drops  may  spring  off  the  dry  cord  ;  to  prevent  this 
it  is  advisable  to  wet  the  same  with  pure  water,  by  means  of  a 
camel's  hair  brush,  all  the  way  down.  The  cord  can  be  used 
for  a  long  time;  should  it  become  yellowish  it  can  be  cleared 
by  washing  it  in  water,  then  in  alcohol,  and  again  in  water  ;  its 
trifling  cost,  however,  renders  it  preferable  to  replace  it  by  a 
new  one  from  time  to  time. 

When  refilling  the  reagent  jar,  place  the  funnel  between  the 
swimmer  and  wall  of  glass  jar,  on  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  and 
pour  the  liquid  into  the  funnel. 

It  is  advisable  to  clean  glass  and  metal  parts  of  the  instru- 
ment from  time  to  time,  but  only  tissue  paper  should  be  used 
for  that  purpose. 


2JO  AIR. 

The  formula  for  the  reagent  is  as  follows : — 

No.  i.  Phenolphtalein  Solution.  Dissolve  one  gram  (15  grains) 
of  phenolphtalein  in  yz  liter  (about  one  pint)  95  per  cent, 
alcohol. 

No.  2.  Soda  Solution.  Dissolve  5  grams  (75  grains)  of  crys- 
tallized carbonate  of  soda  in  y>  liter  (about  one  pint)  dis- 
tilled water.  Unless  the  chemically  pure  crystallized  carbonate 
of  soda  is  on  hand,  care  should  be  taken  when  using  regular 
washing  soda  that  the  white,  mealy  substance  be  first  re- 
moved, and  only  the  transparent  crystals  made  use  of. 

These  solutions  should  be  kept  in  well-closed  bottles  in  a 
dark  place. 

To  make  one  filling,  which  will  last  for  about  ten  days, 
take  of  the — 

Phenolphtalein  solution,  No  1 30  c.c  ,  or  about  I  ounce. 

Soda  solution,  No.  2, 30  c.c.,  or  about  I  ounce. 

Distilled  water, 250  c.c.,  or  about  8  ounces. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  detected  even  when  existing  in  small 
quantities  by  exposing  filter  paper  saturated  with  a  solution  of 
lead  acetate  to  the  air,  when,  if  this  gas  be  present,  lead 
sulphid  is  formed,  which  turns  the  paper  black.  If  this  test 
is  not  satisfactory,  the  air  may  be  aspirated  through  pure 
distilled  water  and  the  water  treated  with  a  solution  of  lead 
acetate,  when  a  dark  or  black  precipitate  of  lead  sulphid 
is  produced. 

Ozone  is  best  determined,  both  quantitatively  and  qualita- 
tively, by  Houzeau's  test,  which  is  as  follows :  Faintly  red- 
dened litmus  paper  is  saturated  with  a  solution  of  potassium 
iodid  and  then  dried.  The  strips  are  exposed  to  the  air, 
care  being  taken  to  exclude  dust,  direct  sunlight,  rain,  and 
strong  winds,  when,  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  ozone, 
the  iodin  is  volatilized,  thus  setting  free  the  alkali  potash, 
which  turns  the  paper  blue.  A  standard  scale  of  tints  can  be 
obtained  with  which  to  compare  the  test  strips  ;  the  colors  are 
matched  and  the  quantity  determined.  The  standard  tints  are 
prepared  by  exposing  strips,  prepared  as  above  described,  to 
known  quantities  of  ozone. 

Carburetted    Hydrogen.      Fire    clamp    or     marsh    gas    is    the 


ANALYSIS    OF    AIK — AOUKOUS    VAPOR. 


231 


common  non-illuminative  diluent  of  coal  gas  and  is  present  in 
the  proportion  of  from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent. 

Carburetted  hydrogen  is  present  in  large  quantities  in  poorly 
ventilated  mines,  and  often  it  accumulates  and  endangers  life 
and  property.  The  most  convenient  method  for  detecting  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  when  present  in  large  quantities  in  mines  is 
by  means  of  a  Davy  safety  lamp.  The  gas  passes  through  and 
burns  within  the  cage,  but  the  flame  is  not  communicated  to  the 
outside,  as  the  wire  cage  cools  the  gas  to  a  temperature  below 
the  combustion  point. 

Carbon  Bisulphid.  When  present  in  the  atmosphere,  carbon 
bisulphid  produces  serious  nervous  derangements.  Its  presence 
maybe  detected  by  a  garlicky  odor  characteristic  of  the  contami- 
nant. It  is  highly  inflammable,  and  when  condensed  to  liquid 
form  burns  with  a  yellow  flame,  gives  off  fumes  of  sulphur,  and 
leaves  behind  a  yellow  deposit. 

Aqueous  Vapor.  The  aqueous  vapor  present  in  the  atmosphere 
may  be  estimated  by  hygrometers,  and  the  best  form  to  employ 
is  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers,  for  description  of  which 
see  chapter  on  Climate. 

The  readings  obtained  from  these  thermometers,  when  applied 
to  Glaisher's  Tables,  give  us  a  ready  method  for  estimating 
the  amount  of  aqueous  vapor. 


TABLE  I. 


READING 
OF  DKY 

UI.l!    TlIKK. 

FACTOK. 

| 
READING 
OH    DKY 
HULB 
THKK. 

1 
FACTOK. 

READING 
THER. 

CTOH. 

READING 
THKK. 

DEGKF.K. 

DEGKEE. 

1 

DKGKKK. 

DEGKKE. 

32 

3-32 

43 

2.  2O 

54 

.9S 

65           i.S 

33 

3.01 

44 

2.18 

55 

.96 

60           1.8 

2.77 

45 

2.16 

56 

•94 

67             .8 

35 

2.00 

46 

2.14 

57 

92 

68 

2.50 

47 

2.12 

58 

.90 

69 

37 

2.42 

48 

2.IO 

59 

.89 

7° 

2.36 

49 

2.08 

60 

.88 

-i 

39 

2.32 

5° 

2.O6 

6  1 

.87 

~- 

40 

2  29 

51 

2  04 

62 

.86 

~3 

41 

2.26 

52 

2.02 

63 

.85 

"4 

42 

2.23 

53 

2  OO 

64 

•83 

"5 

-J- 


AIR. 


TABLE  II. 


TF.MPERA- 

TURR, 

FAHK. 

WEIGHT    IN 
GKS.  OF  A 
Cruic  FOOT 
OF  VAPOK. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE, 
FAHR. 

WEIGHT    IN 
GRS.  OF  A 
Crmc  FOOT 
OF  VAPOR. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE, 
FAHR. 

WEIGHT    IN 
GRS.  OF  A 
CUBIC  FOOT 
OF  VAPOR. 

TEMPERA- 
TURE, 
FAHR. 

WEIGHT 
IN  GRS.  OF 
A  CUBIC 
FOOT  OF 
VAPOR. 

DKGHEE. 

OKA  INS. 

DEGREE. 

GRAINS. 

DEGREE. 

GRAINS. 

DEGREE. 

GRAINS. 

32 

2  '3 

4j 

3-20 

54 

4-71 

65 

6.81 

33 

2.21 

44 

3-32 

55 

1.8? 

66 

7.04 

34 

2.  ;o 

45 

3-44 

56 

504 

67           7.27 

3S 

2.39 

46 

3-56 

57 

5-21 

68           751 

36 

2.+8 

47 

3-h9 

58 

5-39 

69           7.76 

37 

2-57 

48 

382 

59 

5.58 

70           8.01 

3* 

266 

49 

3-96 

60 

5  77 

/i 

8.27 

39 

2.76 

5° 

4.10 

6l 

5-97 

72 

8-54 

40 

286 

51 

4.24 

62 

6.17 

73           8.82 

4i 

297 

52 

4-39 

63 

6.38 

74           9-1° 

42 

3.08 

53 

4-55 

64 

1 

6.59 

75           9-39 

Table  I  gives  the  factor  by  which  to  multiply  the  excess  of  the 
reading  of  the  dry  thermometer  over  that  of  the  wet ;  to  obtain 
the  excess  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  above  that  of  the  dew 
point — for  every  degree  of  air  temperature  from  32°  to  75°  F. 

Table  II  indicates  the  grains  of  vapor  to  saturate  a  cubic  foot 
of  dry  air  under  the  pressure  of  thirty  inches  of  mercury — for 
every  degree  of  temperature  from  32°  to  75°  F. 

Organic  Matter.  The  organic  matter  of  the  air  is  best  deter- 
mined by  the  process  described  under  the  chapter  on  Water. 
To  apply  these  tests  it  is  necessary  to  pass  a  definite  quantity  of 
air  through  a  known  quantity  of  water,  to  extract  from  the  air 
all  the  suspended  and  soluble  organic  matter.  For  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  purpose  take  a  wash  bottle  and  pour  into  it  500 
c.c.  of  pure  ammonium-free  distilled  water.  Fit  into  the  mouth 
of  the  bottle  a  soft  rubber  stopper,  perforated  by  two  glass  tubes. 
One  of  the  tubes,  extending  from  well  down  in  the  water,  is,  just 
without  the  bottle,  bent  almost  at  a  right  angle,  and  terminates 
in  a  dilated,  funnel-like  manner.  The  other  tube,  extending  from 
just  within  the  bottle,  is  also  bent  at  a  right  angle  after  leaving 
the  bottle,  and  the  outside  end,  by  means  of  rubber  tubing,  is 
connected  with  an  aspirator.  In  this  manner,  knowing  the  ca- 
pacity' of  the  aspirator,  we  can  measure  the  quantity  of  air  pass- 
ing through  the  water  in  the  wash  bottle.  Although  the  amount 
of  air  that  >hould  be  aspirated  through  the  water  is  not  deter- 


SUSPENDED    MATTER. 


233 


mined  by  any  fixed  rule,  fifty  liters  will  be  found  a  convenient 
quantity. 

After  charging  the  water  with  the  organic  matter  of  a  definite 
quantity  of  air  we  proceed  to  test  for  free  ammonia  by  the 
methods  described  when  considering  the  presence  of  organic 
matter  in  water. 

In  each  cubic  meter  of  pure  air  there  arc,  on  an  average, 
about  .06  milligram  of  free  ammonia,  and  .08  milligram  of 
albuminoid  ammonia. 

Another  test,  not  so  accurate  as  the  above  method,  is  per- 
formed by  imbedding  a  U-shaped  glass  tube  in  a  mixture  of 
snow  or  ice  and  salt.  This  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  tube 
to  below  the  freezing  point,  and,  then,  when  the  air  is  aspi- 
rated through  the  tube  the  aqueous  vapor,  carrying  with  it  most 
of  the  organic  matter,  is  precipitated.  Pure  ammonium-free 
distilled  water  is  forced  to  flow  through  the  tube,  washing  out 
the  precipitated  matter.  The  washing  is  then  tested  for  ammo- 
nia, free  and  albuminoid,  as  above. 

This  method  may  also  be  employed  for  collecting  the  sus- 
pended matter  present  in  the  atmosphere. 

Suspended  Matter  in  the  Air.  We  find  suspended  in  the  air 
particles  of  all  kinds  and  descriptions  of  matter.  The  quantity 
of  the  suspended  matter  varies  greatly  in  different  localities. 

It  is  only  in  manufacturing  districts  and  in  the  workrooms  of 
factories  that  it  becomes  a  question  of  much  moment;  but  here 
it  is  undoubtedly  a  potent  etiologic  or  predisposing  factor  in 
the  production  of  diseases. 

A  rough  but  ready  means  for  determining  the  nature  of  sus- 
pended matters  is  to  collect  that  which  is  deposited  in  sheltered 
nooks  and  crevices,  examine  it  microscopically,  chemically,  and, 
if  necessary,  biologically. 

For  a  more  accurate  examination  it  will  be  necessary  to 
employ  other  methods  which  do  not  depend  so  much  upon 
chance,  but  are  more  comprehensive  and  definite  in  their  results. 

A  most  excellent  method  is  to  slowly  aspirate  large  quantities 
of  air  through  about  100  c.  c.  of  distilled  water  in  four  or  five 
wash  bottles,  the  bottles  being  connected  by  rubber  tubing 
and  communicating  one  with  another.  After  aspirating  the 
air  through  the  water  the  bottles  are  tightly  stoppered  with 
'5 


-34  AIK- 

soft  rubber  stoppers  and  set  aside,  that  the  solid  matter  may  be 
deposited,  when  the  supernatant  liquid  is  siphoned  off;  or  the 
water  may  be  poured  into  a  conical  glass  and  withdrawn  by 
means  of  a  wick,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  Water.  The 
water  which  is  withdrawn  should  be  examined  by  the  micro- 
scope for  any  matter  that  may  have  come  over  with  it.  A 
quantitative  examination  may  be  made  by  measuring  the  volume 
of  air  aspirated  through  the  water  and  counting  the  number  ot 
particles  of  matter  in  an  aliquot  part  of  water. 

The  aeroscopes  described  under  the  methods  for  collecting 
bacteria  may  also  be  employed  for  collecting  and  determining 
the  character  of  the  suspended  organic  matter. 

Arsenic  in  the  Air  and  in  Wall  Papers.  The  occupants  of  a 
house  sometimes  suffer  from  serious  disorders  which  cannot  be 
attributed  to  faulty  sanitary  arrangements,  impure  water,  or  to 
irregularities  in  their  manner  of  living.  In  such  instances  sus- 
picion should  fall  on  the  wall  paper,  and  it  should  be  analyzed 
for  arsenic.  Wall  paper  of  any  color  may  contain  arsenic, 
though  the  green-colored  paper  is  the  one  that  is,  usually,  by 
the  public,  associated  with  this  poison.  It  is  by  the  action 
of  the  moist  paste  that  arsenical  pigment  is,  in  a  majority 
of  instances,  decomposed  and  liberated  from  the  wall  paper; 
hence,  another  reason  for  dry  walls.  Arseniuretted  hydrogen 
is  the  form  in  which  this  metal  is  chiefly  found  in  the  air  ; 
occasionally,  however,  arsenious  acid  and  metallic  arsenic  are 
discovered. 

To  analyze  wall  paper  and  various  other  materials  tear  them 
into  small  pieces,  and  treat  the  pieces  according  to  Reinsch's 
test,  described  under  the  chapter  on  Water. 

Biologic  Examination  of  Air.  The  air  contains,  in  addition 
to  mineral  substances,  vegetable  and  animal  debris,  certain  forms 
of  life.  A  knowledge  of  the  state  and  nature  of  the  living  or- 
ganisms of  the  air  is  of  great  moment,  not  only  to  the  microbi- 
ologist  but  to  the  sanitarian,  and  much  time  and  attention  have 
been  devoted  to  its  study.  In  the  various  forms  of  bacteria  we 
ha\e  the  representatives  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  it  is 
with  these  minute  particles  of  living  organic  matter  that  we  are 
particularly  concerned.  The  simplest  method  for  making  a 
biologic  analysis  consists  in  pouring  glycerin  or  glycerin  and 


BIOLOGICAL    EXAMINATION.  335 

glucose  upon  a  slide  and  exposing  it  to  the  air,  and  after  twelve 
or  forty-eight  hours  examining  it  under  the  microscope  and  in- 
oculating tubes  of  nutrient  material.  Spreading  nutrient  gela- 
tin in  a  thin  layer  upon  a  slide  and  exposing  it  to  the  air  and 
watching  the  development  of  the  colonies  is  another  casv 
method.  These  colonies  may  be  examined  microscopically,  and 
for  a  more  extended  observation  tubes  are  inoculated. 

Koch's  Apparatus  consisted  of  a  glass  jar,  6  inches  high,  a 
shallow  glass  capsule,  and  a  brass  lifter.  To  prepare  the  appara- 
tus for  use,  place  the  capsule  in  the  jar,  plug  the  jar  with  cotton 
wool,  and  sterilize  in  the  hot  air  sterili/er.  Nutrient  gelatin  or 
agar  is  liquefied  in  a  stock  tube  and  poured  into  the  capsule. 
When  the  air  is  to  be  examined  remove  the  cotton  plug  and 
permit  free  access  of  the  air  for  a  definite  time,  then  replace  the 
plug  and  set  aside  the  apparatus  for  the  organism  to  develop. 
When  wished,  the  capsule  is  raised  from  the  jar  by  the  lifter. 

Hesse 's  Aeroscope.    A  hollow  glass  Fir..  r,4. 

cylinder  fifty  to  seventy  cm.  long 
and  three  to  four  cm.  in  diameter, 
with  flanged  ends,  is  secured.  One 
end  is  closed  by  a  caoutchouc 
stopper,  which  is  perforated  in  the 
center  to  accommodate  a  glass  tube 
with  cotton  plug.  Placed  across  the 
other  end  is,  first,  a  rubber  cap  with 
a  hole  cut  in  the  center,  and  over 
this  a  second  rubber  cap.  This  mounted  on, 
second  rubber  cap  is  removed  when  the  instrument  is  to  be  used. 
The  apparatus  is  washed  in  I  per  cent,  bichlorid  solution  and 
then  placed  in  the  steam  sterili/er.  After  it  has  been  subjected 
to  the  action  of  the  steam  for  fifteen  minutes,  it  may  be  removed 
and  when  cooled  charged  with  nutrient  media,  which  is  set  in  a 
thin  layer,  around  the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder,  somewhat 
thicker  at  the  bottom. 

Connected  with  the  small  glass  tube  by  means  of  rubber 
tubing  is  an  aspirator,  which  may  be  constructed  as  follows  : — 
Two  conical  flasks,  closed  with  rubber  stoppers,  each  having  two 
perforations,  through  which  pass  glass  tubing,  arranged  as  in 
wash  bottles.  The  lonir  tubes  are  connected  bv  rubber  tubing 


236 


AIR. 


upon  which  is  a  pinch-cock.  One  of  the  flasks  is  filled  with 
water  and  connected  with  the  apparatus.  The  latter  flask  is 
placed  at  some  little  distance  above  the  other.  By  tipping  the 
upper  flask  the  water  flows  into  the  lower  one  and  the  flow  is 
continued  without  interruption  by  siphonic  action.  When  the 
water  in  the  upper  flask  is  exhausted,  the  position  of  the  flasks 
may  be  reversed  and  the  action  continued  indefinitely.  This 
induces  a  constant  flow  of  air  through  the  aeroscope,  and  one 
great  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  quantity  of  air  may 
be  measured.  Although  the  apparatus  may  rest  upon  any 
kind  of  a  stand,  a  photographic  tripod  will  be  found  exceedingly 
convenient. 

A  simple  and  efficient  means  for  analyzing  air  is  by  forc- 
ing it  through  various  media,  water,  bouillon,  liquefied  gelatin,  or 
agar,  which  collects  the  organisms.  An  inexpensive  apparatus 
may  be  made  by  obtaining  a  cylindrical  bell  glass  with  the  top 
open  and  provided  with  a  neck,  so  that  a  rubber  stopper  may  be 
adapted  to  it.  The  rubber  stopper  has  two  openings  to  admit 
pieces  of  glass  tubing,  one  long  and  the  other  short.  The  bot- 


FIG.  65. 


SIMPLE  FOKM  OP  ABKOSCOPB. 
With  syringe    attached   for  the  evacuation 
of  the  contained  air.     The  same  aspira- 
ting   method,    hy    flasks,   as    shown     in 
Hose's  Aeroscope  may  be  used. 


torn  of  the  bell  glass,  which  is 
smeared  with  glycerin,  rests  upon 
a  ground  glass  plate.  Within 
this  is  a  glass  capsule  filled  with 
media.  The  long  tube,  stoppered 
with  cotton  when  not  in  use,  ex- 
tends to  the  bottom  of  the  cap- 
sule. The  short  tube  is  plugged 
with  cotton  and  its  outer  end 
connected  with  an  air  pump  or 
The  air  in  the  apparatus  is  cx- 

h  the 


aspirator,  by  rubber   tubing. 

hausted  and  the  air  to  be  examined  is  thus  forced  throu^ 
media.  A  drop  of  the  media  is  placed  on  a  slide  and  examined 
microscopically.  Plates  and  tubes  of  nutrient  media  are  also 
inoculated  and  the  various  organisms  isolated.  (See  chapter 
on  Technic.) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CLIMATE.* 

Although  comparatively  easy  for  us  to  understand  what  one 
means  when  one  refers  to  the  climate  of  a  certain  locality,  never- 
theless, when  an  attempt  is  made  to  define  it,  we  find  our- 
selves engulfed  in  a  sea  of  impossibilities.  Parkes'  definition, 
that  it  is  "the  sum  of  the  meteorological  conditions  of  a  place 
or  region,"  does  not  at  all  cover  the  requirements,  as  it 
neglects  to  take  into  consideration  the  physical  conformation  of 
that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  and  the  relation  to  water 
courses,  etc.  For  the  most  part,  to  be  specific,  it  may  be  said 
that  climate  is  made  up  of  those  influences  expressed  through 
latitude  and  altitude,  temperature,  barometric  pressure,  the  rela- 
tion of  large  bodies  of  water,  contour  of  the  earth's  surface 
in  any  given  area,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere, 
and,  to  some  extent,  is  modified  by  the  vegetation  on,  as  well 
as  the  composition  of,  the  earth's  surface.  On  account  of  the 
varied  irregularities  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  presence  of  moun- 
tains and  plains,  large  bodies  of  water,  deserts,  of  barren  areas 
and  of  thickly  wooded  districts,  all  of  the  attempts  at  tracing 
upon  the  earth's  surface  climatologic  zones  have  proven  futile. 

We  are  to  remember  that  seasons  modify  temperature,  hu- 
midity, etc.,  to  an  enormous  degree  ;  thus,  while  it  is  midsum- 
mer in  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia,  the  temperature  will  be 
the  same  as  midwinter  at  some  point  nearer  the  equator.  While, 
therefore,  the  temperature  must  vary  through  an  enormous 
range  from  one  season  to  another,  there  is  a  slight  element 
of  consistency  or  regularity  following  the  development  or  cycle 
of  the  seasons,  the  average  of  such  variations  constituting  the 
normal. 

*  The  writers  wish  to  thank  the  Hon.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  also  the  Chief  of 
the  Weather  Bureau,  Mr.  Mark  W.  Harrington,  Washington,  I  >.  (.'. .  and  other  officers 
of  the  Bureau,  for  many  kindnesses  and  much  labor,  which  they  have  all  given,  in  the 
compilation  of  this  chapter,  and  also  for  the  loan  of  illustrations  freely  granted. 


2jS  CLIMATE. 

Aside  from  mere  altitude,  mountainous  and  hilly  districts 
affect  climate  by  altering  and  lessening  winds,  by  diminishing 
the  surface  evaporation  of  water,  probably,  also,  by  the  presence 
of  large  quantities  of  vegetation  and  the  slowness  with  which 
the  seasons  manifest  a  change. 

Relation  of  Climate  to  HcaltJi,  The  question  of  the  effect  of 
climate  upon  health  is  still  a  matter  of  very  warm  dispute.  Does 
a  man  adapt  himself  to  a  climate  ?  The  question  must  of  neces- 
sity, for  the  present  at  least,  remain  sub  judicc.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  impossible  to  remove  a  man  from  a  temperate  climate 
to  a  tropical,  for  example,  and  not  demand  that  his  food  be 
changed,  his  habits  modified,  and  even  his  occupation  more  or 
less  altered.  It  would  seem  that  man  rapidly  adapts  himself  to 
changes  in  temperature,  provided  the  change  be  one  sufficiently 
gradual  to  permit  a  modification  of  habits  and  food.  Changes 
in  humidity  are  not  so  readily  borne  as  are  those  of  tempera- 
ture, and  the  same  is  true  of  barometric  pressure.  For  this 
reason,  if  for  no  other,  the  sick  should  not  be  allowed  to  travel 
over  routes  where  constant  changes  in  altitude  occur.  Refer- 
ence has  already  been  made  to  caisson  disease  when  consider- 
ing the  causes  of  disease. 

Climate  is  a  matter  of  more  importance  in  the  therapy  of  dis- 
ease than  in  the  study  of  hygiene.  As  a  general  rule,  it  maybe 
considered  that  acclimatization  is  possible,  indeed,  probable,  in  the 
sense  that  the  body  accommodates  itself  to  the  change  in  tem- 
perature, changes  in  diet,  habits,  and  environment.  It  would 
therefore  appear  that  that  temperature  or  that  climate  to  which 
an  individual  has  been  longest  accustomed  is,  taken  all  in  all, 
the  best  for  that  individual  under  most  circumstances.  If  there 
be  individual  objections  to  the  climatologic  surroundings,  he 
may  move,  but  an  entire  change  is  something  rarely,  it  ever,  to 
be  advised.  Even  the  removal  from  malarial  districts,  in  indi- 
viduals who  are  accustomed  to  those  areas,  is  a  matter  not  often 
to  be  commended.  The  writers  have  observed  that  students 
coining  from  malarial  localities  of  the  South  suffer  a  very  little 
less  as  a  result  of  three  years  residence  in  the  city  ot  Philadel- 
phia, and  that  sailors  embarking  from  malarial  climates  not  in- 
frr<]ucntly  continue  their  manifestations  of  the  disease  until  it 
be  controlled  by  properly  directed  medical  efforts,  returning 


RELATION    OF    CLIMATE    TO    HEALTH.  239 

after  a  season  of  apparent  abeyance.  The  spread  of  malaria  and 
the  removal  of  malarial  influences  are  best  secured  by  higher 
altitudes  and  proper  drainage. 

Many  erroneous  observations  have  been  made  with  regard  to 
consumption,  based  upon  its  absence  from  certain  areas,  the  fact 
being1  that  it  is  absent  merely  because  the  area  has  not  been  in- 
fected by  tubercular  cases, and  hardly  because  the  atmosphere  and 
climate  is  not  suitable  for  the  development  of  the  disease.  \Ve 
are  informed,  upon  the  authority  of  credible  witnesses,  that  in 
certain  districts  in  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  tubercu- 
losis among  the  inhabitants  was  long  unknown  ;  as  a  result  of  this 
fact,  patients  sought  these  areas  under  the  impression  that  what 
would  prevent  a  disease,  for  that  was  the  way  that  the  facts  were 
viewed,  would  be  sure  to  cure  it.  The  disease  is  no  longer  un- 
known among  the  inhabitants,  and  the  benefit  probably  derived 
by  the  patients  would  be  equally  sure  to  have  followed  a  sojourn 
elsewhere,  provided  the  atmosphere  had  been  equally  clear  from 
impurities,  more  especially  those  resulting  from  the  inroads  of 
civilization. 

That  certain  climates  are  conducive  to  the  development  of 
definite  groups  of  disease  is  abundantly  proven.  Where  heat, 
moisture,  and  suitable  telluric  conditions  are  present,  diseases, 
parasitic,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  thrive  to  the  greatest 
extent.  Pollution  of  the  necessities  of  life,  water,  food,  etc., 
strangely  becoming  a  part  of  the  climate  itself,  facilitate  the 
endemic  presence  of  all  such  diseases,  and  render  the  difficult 
process  of  suppression,  in  no  few  instances,  impossible.  Habits 
of  the  people,  combining  with  the  other  etiologic  factors,  aid  in 
the  strongest  possible  way.  As  examples  ot  this,  we  have  the 
endemic  presence  of  cholera  in  certain  countries  and  ot 
smallpox  in  others,  both  diseases  similar;  but  identical  climato- 
logic  conditions  can  be  found  elsewhere  without  these  dread 
diseases,  lacking  the  third  factor,  habit  and  environment. 

Race  seems  more  influenced  by  the  climate  than  does  the 
individual,  the  Caucasian  thriving  to  the  best  advantage  in  the 
temperate  /.one,  and  the  colored  races  evincing  a  predilection 
for  the  tropical  belts. 

Si'.r  apparently  is  but  little  influenced  by  climate;  the  woman 
enjoys  better  health  in  warm  climates,  while  man  seems  to  be  more 


240  CLIMATE. 

susceptible  to  the  inroads  of  heat.  This  may  be  partly  explained  by 
the  occupation  demanding  greater  exposure  to  the  noxious  agents. 

The  integral  elements  of  which  the  complex  entity,  climate, 
is  composed  seems  to  afford  more  noxious  features  than  does 
the  whole.  Thus,  as  already  pointed  out,  heat  and  moisture  in- 
crease the  "filth  diseases,"  and  to  a  certain  extent  heat  and  a 
dry  atmosphere,  particularly  the  latter,  lessen  the  liability. 

Sudden  Changes  of  Temperature,  more  particularly  from  warm 
to  cold,  and  worse  if  the  former  have  a  high  relative  humidity, 
are  potent  factors  in  establishing  diseases  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes. This  is  probably  brought  about  by  chilling  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  body,  contraction  of  the  cutaneous  capillaries,  and 
visceral  determination  of  the  blood;  the  mucous  membrane,  con- 
stituting the  great  area  of  the  internal  blood-receiving  organs, 
suffers  to  the  greatest  degree.  As  examples  of  this,  we  have  the 
catarrhal  conditions  of  various  mucous  surfaces  manifested 
during  the  seasons  when  sudden  changes  are  most  likely  to 
occur.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  exacerbations  of  rheu- 
matism and  gout,  during  just  such  changes,  as  well  as  from 
altered  barometric  pressure,  are  not  explained  exclusively  by 
the  meteorologic  phenomena.  A  hot  bath  may  accomplish  the 
same  thing,  but  it  produces  no  such  disease  phenomena  as 
neuralgic  attacks  or  rheumatic  sufferings.  From  observations 
carried  on  at  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  and  quoted  in  Prof. 
Longstreth's  lectures,  it  would  appear  that  sudden  variations 
in  pressure  determine  a  fatal  issue  in  pending  cases. 

For  reasons  already  given,  diseases  of  the  mucous  membranes 
can  best  be  treated  in  an  atmosphere  least  likely  to  afford 
sudden  changes  and,  also,  where  the  relative  humidity  would  re- 
main low.  Sudden  changes  from  warm  to  cool  seem  to  influ- 
ence the  gastro-intestinal  track,  while  the  reverse  affects  more 
the  pulmonary. 

Seasc-n,  for  reasons  already  given  and  from  causes  but  little 
understood,  alters  the  tenure  of  life  in  those  already  greatly 
depressed,  and  possibly  affects  more  or  less  remotely  those  in 
health.  I  he  influence  of  season  in  determining  mortality  is 
illustrated  bv  the  following  table  from  Wilson  : — 


CLIMATOLOGIC    OBSERVATIONS. 


24I 


WlNTRR. 


Smallpox, 

Measles, ,4" 

Scarlatina, - 

Diphtheria j  4~ 

Croup I  4"     4-  |  4" 

Whooping  cough, 

Typhus  (6  yrs.),    ...... 

Typhoid  (6  yrs.) 

Simple  continued  fever, 4~     + 

Erysipelas, •         : 

Diarrhea,       

KheumaliMn, 

Gout, 4- 

Phthisis ; 

Heart  disease 

Bronchitis, '   J 

Pneumonia, -        4- 

Pleurisy, -j 

Old  age, J     4-     + 


Above  the  average. 
Below  the  average. 


S  I'D  INC;. 


SUMMKM. 


+          t 


AUTUMN. 


2 


+ 

+ 


! '  _i_  •  .1.     •*• 

+  i  4 :  ;  =  i  - 

i-    -|-    + 

=  ;-  +  +!+  : 


Maxima. 
:  Minima. 


+ 
+ 

+ 
4- 


;    :    +  +  ,  


Climatologic  Observations.  Among  the  elements  which 
enter  into  the  study  of  climate  are  temperature,  barometric 
pressure,  precipitation  (rainfall  and  snowfall^,  wind,  the  considera- 
tion of  both  direction  and  velocity,  sunshine  and  cloud,  electrical 
phenomena,  moisture  in  the  air,  and  vapor  pressure,  including  the 
dciv  point,  evaporation,  the  presence  or  absence  of_A^,r,  liaze, 
cloud,  etc. 

Temperature  is  estimated  by  the  thermometer.  In  the  United 
States,  the  Fahrenheit  scale  is  the  one  adopted  as  the  Govern- 
ment standard.  The  fixed  points  upon  the  Fahrenheit  ther- 
mometer are  taken  as  32  degrees  for  the  free/ing  point  and 
212  degrees  for  the  boiling  point  under  a  standard  barometric 
pressure  of  29.922  inches.  The  mercurial  thermometer  is 
reliable  between  minus  37  degrees  and  plus  400  degrees.  It 


242  CLIMATE. 

is  to  be  remembered  that  thermometers  change  slightly  with 
age.  and  that  extremely  high  temperatures,  or  the  reverse, 
modify  the  readings,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary,  at  varying 
intervals  of  one  or  not  more  than  two  years,  to  compare  all 
thermometers  with  a  standard  thermometer  in  order  to  observe 
any  correction  necessary  in  their  readings.  Thermometers  may 
be  made  with  either  spherical  or  cylindrical  bulbs;  the  latter  ex- 
pose more  surface  and  are  therefore  generally  admitted  to  be  the 
more  satisfactory  instruments.  For  taking  temperatures  below 
the  free/ing  point  of  mercury,  alcohol  thermometers  are  the 
most  desirable. 

Minimum  thermometers  are  used  for  reading  the  lowest  tem- 
perature during  the  day.  A  small  index  made  of  enamel  or 
glass  is  fitted  loosely  in  the  bore  of  the  stem,  immersed  in 
alcohol.  When  the  temperature  falls,  this  index  is  carried 
along  by  the  film  or  "  skin  "  covering  the  end  of  the  alcohol 
column  and  stops  at  the  lowest  point  reached.  Should  the 
temperature  rise,  the  alcohol  will  flow  by  the  index  and  leave  it 
at  the  lowest  point.  The  instrument  is  to  be  set  after  each 
observation.  The  setting  consists  in  raising  the  bulb  high 
enough  for  the  index  to  sink  by  gravity  to  the  end  of  the 
column  of  alcohol.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  index 
remains  within  the  alcohol  and  does  not  break  through  the 
film  into  the  vacuum  above  the  end  of  the  column,  otherwise 
errors  in  observation  are  likely  to  occur. 

Maximum  thermometers  are  used  for  recording  the  highest 
temperature  reached  in  any  given  time;  they  consist  of  an 
ordinary  thermometer  with  a  contraction  in  the  stem  near  the 
bulb,  so  arranged  that  when  the  temperature  rises  the  mercury 
is  forced  into  the  tube,  but  when  it  falls  the  contraction  in  the 
stem  breaks  the  column  of  mercury  and  leaves  the  remainder 
of  the  column  as  an  index. 

Following  the  plan  adopted  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  (Weather  Bureau),  the  accompanying  illustration 
will  show  how  the  two  thermometers  should  be  set  up.  The 
maximum  thermometer  is  set  up  by  placing  it  in  an  almost 
horixontal  position  with  the  bulb  lower  than  the  upper  ex- 
tremity. The  minimum  thermometer  is  set  up  by  placing 
it  nearly  horizontal.  Thermometer  readings  are  taken  in  the 


MAXIMUM    AND    MINIMUM    THERMOMETERS.  243 

shade,  at  a  greater  distance  than  four  feet  above  the  ground  and 
in  the  absence  of  wind;  thermometers  should  not  be  in  the 
immediate  proximity  of  a  wall  upon  which  the  sun  is  shining. 
Rain  should  be  excluded. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  day  is  obtained  by  taking  the 
temperature  at  7  A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  9  P.M.,  when  observations  of 
a  dry  thermometer  are  made  at  such  hours,  from  the  following 


SHOWING  MAXIMUM  AND  MINIMUM  THEKMOMETEKS  AND  Mm'>mi>  i>v  SKTTINO  TJIK.M   Li\ 
The  upper  instrument  is  the  minimum  thermometer. 

formula,   which  gives  a  very  close  approximation  to  the  true 
mean  for  the  day. 

7    A    M.   -L  2  1'.  M.  -I-   (9   P.  M.) 
4 

When  readings  are  made  twice  each  day  at  the  same  hours, 
the  mean  is  then  obtained  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  read- 
ings by  two.  The  method  now  in  use  in  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  is  to  divide  the  sum  of  the  highest  and  lowest 
daily  temperature  of  the  clay  by  two,  which  gives,  on  the  average, 
a  mean  about  one  degree  too  high. 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  describe  the  solar  radiation 
thermometer,  as,  so  far  as  known,  no  practical  knowledge  has 
been  derived  from  its  readings. 

The  thcrmoscope  consists  of  a  glass  tube  containing  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  camphor  ;  when  the  temperature  is  high 
the  camphor  is  all  in  solution;  when  the  temperature  is  low,  it 
crystallizes  in  fleecy  clouds.  The  instrument  is  often  sold 
mounted  with  a  thermometer  and  is  presumed  to  indicate  some 


244 


CLIMATE. 


FIG 


changes  in  barometric  pressure,  approach  of  storms,  or  electrical 
conditions  of  the  air,  etc.,  but  it  possesses  no  such 
value. 

Aqueous  }7'apor.  Air  always  contains  more  or 
less  vapor  of  water,  which  at  times  becomes  vis- 
ible as  fog  or  cloud,  or  when  the  temperature 
of  the  air  is  near  the  saturation  point, — that 
temperature  at  which  evaporation  ceases, —  it 
manifests  itself  by  condensing  into  vapor  on 
exposed  bodies.  The  quantity  of  moisture 
which  any  given  volume  of  air  will  take  up  is 
dependent  upon  the  temperature,  and  if  satura- 
tion occur  at  a  higher  temperature  and  the 
'•:*-.  temperature  falls,  the  moisture  will  be  precipi- 
tated. The  point  at  which  this  precipitation 
takes  place  is  known  as  the  dciv  point,  or  point 
of  saturation. 

For  different  saturation  temperatures  the 
vapor  pressures  in  inches  of  mercury,  and 
weight  of  the  vapor  in  grains  contained  in  a 

cubic  foot  of  air,  are  as  follows  : — 


HYDROMETER  OR 
THBKMOSCOFB. 

An  instrument  widely 
used,  hut  possessing 
no  reliable  features 
in  weather  prog- 
nostication. 


O 
IO 
2O 
30 
40 

50 


0.038 
0.063 
0.103 
0.164 
0.246 

o  360 


0.56 
O.Sj 
1.32 
I.q6 
285 
4.08 


60 
70 
80 
90 


0.732 

I. O2  2 
1.408 
I.9l6 


5-74 
7.98 

1093 
14.79 

19-77 


The  relative  humidity  is  calculated  by  taking  the  pressure  of 
the  vapor  as  found  in  a  given  temperature  and  dividing  by  the 
amount  of  vapor  which  would  be  contained  in  air  saturated  at 
that  temperature,  the  result  being  the  relative  humidity,  ex- 
pressed in  humlredths  of  the  pressure  at  saturation.  Should 
the  temperature  rise  or  fall,  the  percentage  of  relative  humidity 
will  change,  although  there  may  be  no  change  in  the  absolute 
humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  and  for  this  reason  relative  humidity 
is  a  constantly  changing  clement. 

Psyclironictcr.  This  instrument  consists  of  two  thermometers, 
one  known  as  the  dry-bulb  and  the  other  as  the  wet-bulb  ther- 


PSYCH  ROM  ETER — HAROM  ETER.  24  5 

mometer.  The  dry-bulb  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an 
ordinary  mercurial  thermometer  and  the  wet-bulb  is  a  similar 
instrument,  in  which  the  bulb  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  muslin 
kept  saturated  with  water.  As  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
from  the  muslin  over  the  bulb  cools  the  mercury  within  the 
bulb,  the  wet-bulb  thermometer  will  read  lower  than  the  dry- 
bulb,  and  as  the  lower  the  amount  of  water  in  the  air  at  a  triven 

o 

temperature  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  evaporation  from  the 
wet-bulb,  so  that  the  reading  of  the  wet-bulb  will  be  lower  the 
dryer  the  air.  By  a  system  of  comparisons  between  the  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  apparatus  and  different  observations,  tables 
have  been  constructed  by  means  of  which,  given  the  readings  of 
the  dry- and  wet-bulb  thermometers,  the  temperature  of  the  dew 
point  and  the  relative  humidity  may  readily  be  obtained.  (See 
Glaisher's  tables  in  chapter  on  Air.)  The  accuracy  of  the  dry- 
and  wet-bulb  thermometers  and  the  certainties  of  their  readings 

o 

may  be  developed  to  a  higher  degree  by  the  sling  thermometer, 
which  consists  of  a  dry- and  wet-bulb,  mounted  either  back  to 
back  or  side  by  side  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the  observer 
to  sling  them  readily,  thus  bringing  the  bulb  in  contact  with  con- 
stantly changing  air  and  preventing  the  accumulation  of  the  satur- 
ated air  immediately  around  the  wet-bulb.  The  thermometer  is 
whirled  about  fifty  revolutions  ;  both  thermometers  are  then  read 
and  the  wet-bulb  re-moistened  and  whirled  fifty  revolutions  and 
again  read  ;  this  process  is  repeated  until  two  readings  of  the 
wet-bulb  are  the  same  or  a  reading  is  reached  in  which  the  wet- 
bulb  records  higher  than  in  the  previous  reading.  The  lowest 
simultaneous  reading  should  be  recorded. 

Barometer.  The  mercurial  barometer  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
about  thirty-eight  inches  in  length  and  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
in  its  interior  diameter,  sealed  at  one  end,  filled  with  mercury, 
and  inverted,  the  open  end  dipping  into  a  cistern  of  mercury. 
The  vertical  height  from  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern, 
when  adjusted  to  the  zero  point  of  the  scale,  to  the  top  of  the 
mercury  in  the  inverted  tube  is  known  as  the  barometer  read- 
ing; above  this  point  is  the  vacuum  chamber  of  the  barometer. 
For  convenience  and  to  prevent  breakage,  the  entire  instrument 
is  enclosed  in  brass,  with  the  exception  of  the  cistern  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  tube,  which  are  left  exposed  in  order  that  the 


246  CLIMATE. 

mercury  maybe  seen  and  its  height  regulated  in  the  cistern  and 
that  readings  may  be  made  from  the  upper  column.  The  accom- 
panying illustrations  will  best  explain  the  essential  features  of  a 
modern  barometer. 

To  facilitate  reading  there  is  attached  the  vernier,  so  named 
from  its  inventor.  For  convenience  the  vernier  is  usually  ar- 
ranged on  a  rack  and  pinion,  so  as  to  be  moved  by  a  thumb- 
screw, as  shown  in  the  illustration.  As  the  mercury  within  the 
barometer  is  affected  by  heat  and  cold  it  is  important  that  we 
should  have  a  record  of  its  temperature  in  order  that  the  neces- 
sary corrections  may  be  made;  for  this  purpose  a  thermometer 
is  placed  with  the  bulb  resting  against  the  glass  barometer  tube. 
For  observation,  the  barometer  should  be  placed  in  a  room  hav- 
ing a  temperature  as  uniform  as  is  attainable,  and  the  height 
should  be  such  that  the  top  of  the  column  would  be  about  on  a 
line  with  the  observer's  eye.  Care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the 
instrument  from  air  currents  or  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  at 
the  same  time  it  must  be  in  such  light  as  to  secure  plenteous 
illumination  to  facilitate  reading.  The  instrument  must  hang 
vertically,  or  "  plumb."  Certain  barometers  are  so  constructed 
as  to  always  assume  a  vertical  position  by  means  of  a  ringed 
suspension  apparatus  at  the  top.  The  barometer  should  be 
surrounded  by  a  box  to  prevent  sudden  variations  in  temperature 
and  to  exclude  dust.  In  order  to  make  an  observation  and  to 
correct  it,  as  is  now  directed  by  the  Weather  Service,  the  ob- 
server will  proceed  in  the  following  order  :  First  note  the  tem- 
perature of  the  attached  thermometer,  then  gently  tap  the 
instrument  at  several  points  in  order  to  loosen  up  any  cohesion 
between  the  mercury  and  the  glass.  By  means  of  the  screw  (0)  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cistern,  lift  or  depress  the  mercury  in  the 
cistern  until  the  ivory  point,  </  (the  xero  of  the  scale),  conies  in 
exact  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  mercury.  This  can  be 
easily  determined  ;  as  one  looks  at  the  mercury  the  inverted 
point  will  be  observable,  and  when  the  inverted  image  and  the 
point  are  in  exact  contact  the  desideratum  has  been  attained. 
If  the  surface  of  the  mercury  be  covered  by  a  layer  of  the  oxid, 
some  difficulty  may  be  found,  but  this  can  usual!}'  be  remedied 
by  noticing  that  as  soon  as  the  ivory  point  impinges  upon  the 
surface  of  the  mercurv  a  slight  indentation  will  be  discernible, 


248 


CLIMATE. 


and  the  mercury  may  be  slightly  raised  and  then  lowered  until 
this  depression  disappears.  The  vernier  is  then  adjusted  until 
the  reading  plane  of  the  vernier  is  tangent  to  the  meniscus 
(rounded  top)  of  the  column  of  mercury.  The  reading  of  the 
instrument  is  accomplished  as  follows  :  The  inches  and  tenths 
of  inches  are  read  on  the  barometer  scale  and  the  hundredths 
and  thousandths  of  inches  on  the  vernier  ;  a  line  on  the  vernier  is 
found  which  coincides  with  a  line  on  the  barometer  scale;  this  is 
then  taken  as  hundredths,  the  thousandths  being  interpolated 
when  such  fractions  occur. 


FIG.  70. 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


3U 


0 


-10 


© 

—  10 


30 


29 


•~1 


30  ~- 


The  following  examples,  taken  from  the  "  Instructions  for  Vol- 
untary Observers,"  issued  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau, 
will  more  fully  explain  the  method  : — 

In  Fig.  70  the  regulating  line,  which  is  the  lower  edge  of  the 
vernier  ring,  coincides  exactly  with  the  line  of  30  inches  on  the 
scale.  The  x.ero  and  tenth  division  of  the  vernier  are  also  in 
exact  coincidence;  that  is  to  say,  there  is  no  fraction.  We 
then  shall  read  30.000  inches. 

In  Fig.  71    the  regulating  line  does  not  fall  upon  any  of  the 


KAROMETER    CORRECTIONS.  249 

divisions  of  the  scale,  but  between  29^  and  29^,  inches.  There 
is  then  a  fraction  which  must  be  read  on  the  vernier.  Seeking 
which  of  these  divisions  coincides  with  that  of  the  scale,  we  find 
that  it  is  the  fifth  ;  we  shall  write,  then,  29.250  inches. 

In  Fig.  72  we  see  that  the  height  falls  between  30  inches  and 
30^  inches  ;  no  line  of  the  vernier  coincides  exact!)'  ;  but  the 
line  7  is  a  little  above  and  the  line  8  a  little  below  one  of  the 
lines  of  the  scale;  the  fraction  falls,  then,  between  seven  and 
eight  hundredths.  Estimating  in  tenths  the  distance  the  vernier 
passes  over  between  the  coincidence  of  7  and  that  of  S,  the 
tenths  of  a  hundred  or  the  thousandths  are  obtained.  In  the 
latter  case  the  distance  above  7  is  greater  than  the  half;  it  will 
read,  then,  greater  than  30.075  and  less  than  30.0X0,  or  about 
30.077.  It  will  always  be  easy  to  judge  whether  the  top  ap- 
proaches nearer  the  upper  coincidence  than  the  lower  coinci- 
dence ;  in  the  former  case  the  fraction  is  greater  than  .005  ;  in 
the  latter  it  is  smaller  than  .005.  The  error  which  will  be  com- 
mitted in  this  estimate  will  remain  less  than  .005  ;  after  a  little 
practice  it  will  rarely  exceed  .002,  always  supposing  the  scale  is 
well  graduated.  For  this  reading,  as  well  as  for  the  others,  it  is 

o  o ' 

particularly  important  to  have  the  eye  exactly  at  the  height  of 
the  line  to  be  determined. 

Corrections.     Having  taken  the  reading,  certain  corrections  will 

o  o ' 

be  found  necessary.  First,  the  instrument  should  have  been  com- 
pared with  a  standard  barometer  and  corrections  made  for  instru- 
mental error ;  these  corrections  are  now  made.  Next,  the  cor- 
rections must  be  made  for  temperature,  and  this  is  usually  done 
by  tables.  The  correction  for  temperature  consists  in  reducing 
all  observations  to  a  temperature  of  32  degrees  F.,  and  this  is 
computed  from  the  following  formula: — 

,    HI   It  32)   S   (f 62) 

Correction  =  —  k 

I  -f.  Ht(f—32) 

in  which 

A  =  reading  of  the  barometer, 
t  =  temperature  of  attached  thermometer, 

m  —  expansion  of  mercury  lor  1°  F.,  taken  as  .oooioio  of  its  length  at  32°, 
s  —  expansion  of  the  substance  of  which  the  scale  is  made  ;  for  bra-s  .f  is  taken 
as   .00001020  of  its  length   (A)  at  the  standard  Uniperatuie   lor  the  scale. 
viz. :   62°  F. 

As  it  is  desirable  that  all  barometers  should  be  read  from  the 
16 


2;O  CLIMATE. 

same  standard,  the  reading  is  then  reduced  to  sea  level,  the  re- 
duction being  known  as  the  corrected  reading. 

The  correction  for  altitude  consists  in  reducing  the  observa- 
tion to  a  reading  at  the  sea  level,  and  is  computed  from  the 
following  formula  :  — 

Log.  --*,  -  {6oi59(!  "    -^~    *°)  (i  +  -00260COS  2/) 


. 

20SS6S61 

h 
From  a  table  of  common  logarithms,  the  natural  number  corresponding  to  log.  -^7 

is    found  ;  or  =  n,  and  //  —  n  h'  .     In  this  formula  — 

h> 
h  and    h'  —  barometer  reduced  to  32°  F.,  at  sea  level  and  upper  station,  re- 

spectively, 

/  and  /'  --  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the  respective  stations, 
f  =.  elevation  of  upper  station  in  feet, 
/  :=  latitude  of  the  place. 

Thus   the   reduced   and   corrected   reading  would  be  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


EXAMPLE    OF    CORRECTED    BAROMETRIC    READING. 

Time  8  A.  M. 

Attached    thermometer,    ............  7°-5°   f  • 

Observed  height,  ..............  29.907  inches. 

Correction   for    ins.    error,  ..........  oo.ooo 

Corrected  for  ins.  error,  ............  29.907 

Correction    for    temperature,  .........  .113 

Cor.  for  ins.  error  and  temp.,  ..........  29.794 

Correction  for  elevation,  ......        .....  -f-.I2O 

Corrected  and   reduced,  ............  29.914 

These  corrections  are  demanded  in  order  that  observations  at 
different  points  may  be  used  for  comparison. 

The  altitude  of  a  station  may  be  obtained  by  taking  the  differ- 
ence in  the  barometric  pressure  from  that  at  the  sea  level,  divid- 
ing this  by  the  pressure  of  the  elevation  to  be  measured  plus  30, 
and  multiplying  by  55761.  Thus  the  altitude  of  Pike's  Peak 
\\ould  be  obtained  by  adding  17.8  to  30  and  using  as  a  fraction 
the  difference  between  17.  8  and  30,  which  would  be  12.2;  the 
reduced  formula  would  therefore  be  12.2  divided  by  47.8,  multi- 
plied by  55761,  which  is  equal  to  14,231.88003. 

The  aneroid  barometer  will  be  best  understood  by  referring  to 
the  accompanying  illustrations.  These  barometers  are  graduated 


ANEROID    BAROMETER — HYPSOMETER. 


251 


by  a  standard  mercurial  barometer,  and  in  the  best  forms  there 

is  a  correction  for  temperature,  which  is  necessary  by  reason  of 

the  effect  of    heat  and    cold 

upon  the  transmitting  levers. 

The  instrument  is  not  as  accu- 

rate as  is  the  mercurial  bar- 

ometer, and  is  more  liable  to 

deterioration. 

In  estimating  altitude,  the 
boiling  point  of  water  has  been 
utilized  to  an  advantage  ;  thus, 
at  or  near  the  sea  level  with  a 
pressure  of  29.922,1116  temper- 
ature at  which  boiling  occurs 
is  212°  F.,  while  at  a  pressure 
of  eighteen  inches  the  boiling 


ANEKOID  UAKOMKI  tit. 

A. — Partly  exhausted  metallic  box,  in  which  the 
sides  are  held  apart  by  the  spring.  H. — E,  C,  D. 
the  lever  mechanism  through  which  the  dial- 
hand,  H,  is  moved. 


point  is  187.5 


thermometer     raduated  for  obtainin     the 


FIG.  74. 


CASED  ANEROID  BAROMETER  \VITH   INDEX  HAND,  AS  USUALLY  SOLD. 

The  short  hand  can  be  set  at  any  point  and  is  used  to  locate  changes  which  may  have  occurred 

between  the  readings. 


boiling  point  is  known  as  the  hypsonieter,  and  is  made  very  short 


CLIMATE. 


and  graduated  at  the  freezing  point ;  a  distention  then  takes  place 
in  the  capillary  tube  followed  by  a  contraction  and  graduation 


Fir,.  75. 
FrontView. 


Fir..  77 

Receiver. 


FIG.   76. 
Vertical  Section. 

'\ 

\.           -<4.            j/b 

J""~, 

rf 

d 



f 

B 

C 

s 

Horizontal 'Sectian,E-'P. 


Fir..  79. 
0  /  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  II  It  13  14  IS  IS  17  IB  19  20  !'  &  »  24  In 


^•E 

SCALE. 

Tig 

shows  R:, 

in  Clause 

set  up.      Fie.  76  shows  ver 

icalsect 

ion  of 

same.      1' 

iK.  77  shows  R, 

•  i 

Funnrl   < 

iindin  lint 

Tul 

c.     Ki, 

.   78  shows  ho 

rizontal 

sectio 

n  of  7S  :it 

K  I',.    I1  \K.  71;  . 

Sc; 

A, 

^rcc 

ivcr.      1!, 

Overflow 

Alia 

;hnu-n 

(  ',  Measuri 

IK   Tub 

11, 

rt,    Krceii 

er  "lop,  ei«ht 

mch 

ill  c 

lainctcr,  1 

'•rininatii 

H  in  t 

n-  tun 

el-like  hottoni 

which 

coiuiu 

tts    the  1.1 

n   into  the  Mea 

in 

Tu» 

r    C.      ,-. 

Overflow 

,  ope 

liiiK   i, 

to  outside  <:yl 

nder. 

I'll.  ( 

utsiile   cyl 

niler    1!,  or  O% 

i  n 

Me 

.Minn«    'I 

lll.C,   wllic 

h  for 

his  re 

son  is  kept  in 

he  hous 

c. 

from  170°  F.  to  214°  I-\  The  instrument  affords  a  reading  which 
is  accurate  within  about  .06  of  an  inch. 


PRECIPITATION — PERCOLATION WIND.  253 

Precipitation.  Rain,  hail,  and  snow  are  all  classed  under  the 
head  of  precipitation,  and  the  amount  which  falls  at  any  time  is 
known  as  the  precipitation  for  that  period  ;  in  the  annual  pre- 
cipitation the  three  are  included.  Hail  and  snow  are  measured 
as  the  depths  of  water  which  they  produce  when  melted.  When 
snow  cannot  be  melted  and  measured,  one-tenth  of  the  measured 
depth  may  be  considered  as  its  equivalent  in  rainfall;  there  arc, 
however,  a  great  many  factors  which  modify  this  and  render  the 
method  inaccurate.  The  instrument  used  for  obtaining  the 
amount  of  precipitation  is  known  as  the  rain  gauge,  and  reference 
to  the  accompanying  illustrations  will  explain  its  parts. 

A  rain  gauge  should  be  preferably  located  in  a  large  open  space 
and  within  a  very  few  feet  of  the  ground.  Altitude  affects  materi- 
ally the  amount  of  rain  which  a  gauge  will  collect;  thus  a  gauge 
forty-three  feet  above  the  ground  will  collect  only  about  three- 
fourths  as  much  as  will  that  upon  the  ground  ;  at  eighty-five  feet 
not  quite  two-thirds,  and  at  two  hundred  feet  about  one-half.  In 
the  city,  a  roof  at  least  fifty  or  sixty  feet  square,  if  not  too 
elevated,  will  give  practically  the  same  results  as  the  open  plain. 
The  depth  of  water  in  the  rain  gauge  is  measured  by  inserting 
the  gauge  stick  through  a  hole  in  the  funnel  and  observing  to 
what  point  the  stick  is  wetted.  As  the  stick  is  graduated  to 
allow  for  the  cylinder  containing  the  water  being  one-tenth  the 
diameter  of  the  collecting  funnel,  the  reading  off  may  be  in 
decimals,  as  graduated  on  the  stick.  During  the  winter  the 
snow-fall  is  received  in  the  outside  cylinder ;  the  overflow 
attachment  receiver  and  measure  top  may  be  kept  in  the  house. 
The  snow-fall  collected  in  the  overflow  top  is  melted,  poured  into 
the  measure  cylinder,  and  estimated  as  already  directed  for  rain. 

A  percolation  gauge  is  used  to  determine  the  amount  of  rain- 
fall which  penetrates  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  gauge  as 
ordinarily  used  consists  of  a  metallic  receptacle  three  feet  in 
diameter  and  about  three  feet  deep,  at  the  bottom  of  which  on 
one  side  there  is  a  depression  which  receives  any  water  which 
flows  through.  This  is  to  be  pumped  out  and  measured.  The 
surface  percolation  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  rain- 
fall, the  temperature,  and  character  of  the  soil. 

Witid.  The  direction  of  the  wind  is  measured  by  a  wind  vane 
and  is  always  considered  to  be  the  point  of  the  compass  from 


Wind  Vane  ami  Ceiling  Dial* 

-54 


ROBINSON    ANEMOMETER. 


255 


which  the  wind  is  coming.  The  accompanying  illustration 
shows  the  form  of  wind  vane  as  recommended  by  the  Weather 
Bureau.  The  recommendation  is  made  that  the  vane  be  not 
less  than  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  top  of  the  building  upon 
which  it  is  mounted.  Where  there  are  rapid  changes  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  those  made  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
hands  of  a  watch  move  are  known  as  veering,  while  those  made 
in  the  opposite  direction  are  known  as  backing. 

FIG.  81. 


RODINSON  ANEMOMETER. 

Anemometer.  For  measuring  the  velocity  with  which  the 
wind  travels,  some  form  of  the  anemometer  is  used.  The  one 
recommended  by  the  Weather  Bureau  is  known  as  the  Robin- 
son Anemometer  ;  other  forms  are  used  for  measuring  air  currents 
in  mines  and  for  studies  in  ventilation,  etc.* 

In  the  Robinson  Anemometer  the  reading  of  the  dial  is  to  be 

*For  measuring,  heating  and  ventilating  currents,  see  Anemometer,  under  Ventilation 
and  Heating. 


256  CLIMATE. 

corrected,  and  for  this  purpose  the  accompanying  table  is  com- 
piled. 

Observed    r-e-  True  velocity,  Observed  ve-  True  velocity, 

locitv.  miles  miles  f>er  locity,  miles  miles  per 

per  hour.  hour.  per  hour.  hour. 

O  .     .  50  40.8 

10  9-8  60  48.0 

20  17-S  70  55-2 

30  25.7  80  62.2 

40  33-3  90  69.2 

The  wind  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  foot  is  equivalent  to 
0.004  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  true  velocity. 

Clouds.  For  convenience  in  observation,  clouds  are  divided 
into  three  primary  types  and  three  compound  or  secondary  : 
Cirrus,  Cumulus,  Stratus,  Cirro-cumulus,  Cirro-stratus,  Cumulo- 
stnitiis,  and  nimbus. 

The  cirrus  clouds  are  the  high  whispy  or  feathery  clouds, 
\vhitish  in  color  and  sparsely  present.  They  are  sometimes 
known  as  "  cat's  whiskers  "  and  as  "  mare's  tail  "  clouds.  They 
are  clouds  of  extremely  high  altitude,  rarely  if  ever  below 
16,000  feet. 

The  cumulus  is  a  dense  compact  cloud,  round  in  the  foreground 
and  bulging  "  like  cotton  from  a  bale."  It  has  a  flat  surface 
toward  the  earth,  and  is  usually  about  4000  feet  above  the 
ground  surface.  It  is  due  to  a  condensation  of  moisture  in  the 
ascending  columns  of  air  after  reaching  a  sufficiently  high  altitude 
to  attain  the  dew  point.  The  cumulus  forms  one  of  the  varieties 
of  "  thunder  heads  "  as  observed  at  sea. 

Stratus.  \Yhile  cirrus  and  cumulus  are  distinctly  day  clouds, 
the  stratus  is  a  night  cloud  and  is  formed  largely  by  the  radia- 
tion of  heat  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  atmosphere.  It  con- 
sists of  an  elevated  fog,  about  one  to  two  thousand  feet  in 
altitude.  The  mass  is  uniform,  covers  a  large  area,  and  appears, 
as  the  name  indicates,  in  strata. 

( )f  these  three  primary  forms  there  may  be  various  combina- 
tions, the  Cirro-stratus,  Cirro-cumulus,  Cumulo-stratiis,  the  latter 
being  sometimes  called  the  "  roll  cumulus." 

The  niuilnts  is  a  dense,  thick,  black  cloud,  without  any  appar- 
ent margin,  and  from  which  rain  or  snow  is  constantly  falling. 

Hesides  observing  the  character  of  the  cloud,  that  is,  to  which 
of  the  preceding  groups  it  belongs,  its  direction,  rapidity  of 


MICHIGAN.  257 

movement,  elevation,  and  proportion  of  the  sky  which  it  covers 
should  be  noted. 

In  recording  weather  observations,  the  sky  is  accorded  clear 
when  less  than  .3  obscure,  it  is  fair  when  from  .4  to  .7  obscure, 
and  cloudy  when  the  sky  is  more  than  .7  obscure. 

The  evaporoinctcr  is  an  instrument  from  which  measurement 
is  made  of  the  amount  of  moisture  which  evaporates  in  a  given 
length  of  time;  usually  it  consists  of  a  round  dish,  one  foot  in 
diameter  and  about  four  inches  in  depth,  and  the  amount  of 
radiation  is  known  by  measuring  the  depth  of  water  or  by 
weighing  the  dish.  The  dish  should  be  kept  in  the  open  air, 
free  from  the  influence  of  the  sun's  ray  and  winds.  "  With  a 
wind  velocity  of  five  miles  an  hour,  the  evaporation  is  twenty-two 
times  as  great  as  in  a  calm.  Ten  miles  an  hour  3.8  ;  fifteen  miles 
4.9;  twenty  miles  5.7  ;  twenty-five  miles  6.1  ;  thirty  miles  6.3." 

The  following  data,  collected  from  various  sources  credited 
with  each  item,  are  inserted  that  medical  men  may  have  some 
references  to  which  they  may  turn  when  a  change  of  climate  in 
any  case  may  seem  desirable.  Unlike  faulty  drainage  or  poor 
water,  no  sanitary  laws  can  alter  an  undesirable  climate,  and 
hence  where  a  change  is  demanded,  either  in  the  treatment  or 
prevention  of  disease,  the  individual  must  seek  the  desired 
region.  Where  the  climate  of  a  single  State  varies  greatly  it  is 
necessary  to  record  the  variations,  as  serious  errors  might  other- 
wise arise.  For  example,  one  given  the  indefinite  directions  to  visit 
California  might  encounter  any  climate,  either  wet  or  dry,  warm 
or  cold,  or  any  combination  of  the  four  factors,  and  of  course  any 
barometric  pressure,  from  sea  level  to  perpetual  snow  altitude.* 

MICHIGAN. 

Mr.  Edward  A.  Evans,  Local  Forecast  Official  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  supplies  the  following  data  compiled  from  twenty  years' 
observation  : — 


*  These  data  have  been  collected  under  the  greatest  possible  difficulties,  as  all 
attainable  records  are  made  with  the  agriculturist's  interests  at  heart  and  with  almost 
no  consideration  for  their  sanitary  importance.  It  has  been  in  this  that  the  officers 
and  representatives  of  the  Federal  and  State  Weather  Services  have  given  us  the 
greatest  possible  aid.  Several  States  have  been  left  out  of  the  data,  either  because 
approximate  data  were  inserted  from  adjoining  States  or  by  reason  of  such  faulty 
records  as  to  offer  no  data  of  value. 


258  CLIMATE. 

Temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  24.8  ;  Febru- 
ary 26.5;  March  32.5;  April  45.1;  May  57.7;  June  67.3 ;  July 
71.8;  August  69.6;  September  62.3 ;  October  5  1.2;  November 
38.3  ;  December  29.4 

Precipitation,  in  inches  :  January  2.04  ;  February  2.29  ;  March 
2.42  ;  April  2.20  ;  May  3.46  ;  June  3  69  ;  July  3.55  ;  August  2.94  ; 
September  2. 59;  October  2.61;  November  2.54  ;  December  2.45. 

Humidity  (percent.):  January  77.8;  February  75.8;  March 
73.7 ;  April  65.6  ;  May  64.5  ;  June  68.4 ;  July  69.2  ;  August  70.6 ; 
September  70.8  ;  October  71.7;  November  74.5  ;  December  78.3. 

The  actual  mean  annual  barometric  reading  is  29  inches. 

The  average  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  the  spring  is  April 
28,  and  of  the  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall,  October  25. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

From  Mr.  R.  J.  Hyatt,  Local  Forecast  Official  at  Vicksburg, 
Miss.,  the  following  data  have  been  received  : — 

Mean  Temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  47.6 ; 
February  52.9  ;  March  58.3  ;  April  65.9  ;  May  72.9  ;  June  79.3  ; 
July  91.7;  August  80.2;  September  74.9  ;  October  65. 6;  Novem- 
ber 55.3  ;  December  50.5  ;  mean  annual  65.2  F. 

The  mean  precipitation  by  months  is:  January  5.47  inches; 
February  4.85  ;  March  6.38  ;  April  6.42  ;  May  5.15  ;  June  4.33  >' 
July  4. 12  ;  August  3.64;  September  4.08  ;  October  3.0x3 ;  Novem- 
ber 4.36;  December  5.08.  Average  monthly  4.74  inches. 

Mean  Relative  Humidity  (per  cent.):  January  74.6;  February 
71;  March  65.9;  April  679;  May  70;  June  74.7;  July  76.6; 
August  75.3  ;  September  75.1  ;  October  74.1  ;  November  71.3  ; 
December  71.8. 

Above  data  compiled  from  eleven  years'  records. 

MINNESOTA. 

From  Mr.  Edward  A.  Heals,  Director  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  of  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  the  following  data  have 
been  received  : — 

The  temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  7  ;  Feb- 
ruary II  ;  March  24;  April  44;  May  54;  June  65  ;  July  70; 
August  66;  September  58  ;  October  45;  November  29  ;  Decem- 
ber i.X;  mean  annual  temperature  41. 


KENTUCKY.  259 

The  precipitation  by  months  is:  For  January  1.15  ;  February 
0.95;  March  i.n;  April  2.40;  May  2.93;  June  4.21;  July 
3.52;  August  2.93  ;  September  2.46 ;  October  1.33;  November 
0.80;  December  1.22;  mean  annual  25  inches. 

No  data  were  obtainable  as  to  relative  humidity  and  average 
atmospheric  pressure. 

The  humidity  and  pressure  from  four  selected  Weather 
Bureau  stations  for  a  period  of  from  seven  to  ten  years  ending 
December  31,  1881,  are  as  follows  : — 

Pressure.  Rt-latiiie  Humidity. 

St.  Paul,         29.942  68.5 

Moorliead, 29.971  74.5 

Duluth, 29.974  70.2 

St.  Vincent, 29-963  76.2 

Above  data  compiled  from  seven  years'  observations. 

KENTUCKY. 

From  Mr.  Frank  Burke,  Local  Official  of  the  Weather  Bureau, 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  the  following  data  have  been  obtained : — 

Average  temperature  by  months:  January  54.2;  February 
38.7;  March  44.2;  April  55.8;  May  66.4;  June  74.7;  July 
78.9;  August  76.4;  September  68.7 ;  October  58.4;  Novem- 
ber 45.3  ;  December  37.9;  annual  average  56.6. 

Precipitation  (in  inches):  January  4.26;  February  4.51; 
March  4.08;  April  4.52;  May  3.95;  June  446;  July  4.14; 
August  3  57  ;  September  2.90;  October  3.32;  November  3.89 ; 
December  4.30;  annual  average  47.90.  Highest  temperature 
recorded  in  past  21  years  104.6°  F.  Lowest  temperature — 
19.5°  F.  Average  date  of  first  autumn  frost  October  6; 
average  date  of  last  spring  frost  April  20.  Mean  annual 
humidity  66  per  cent.  Mean  annual  barometric  pressure 
29.488,  without  correction. 

Prevailing  direction  of  wind,  south. 

Annual  average  number  of  clear  days, no 

"  "  "  cloudy  days, 1 20 

"  "  "  partly  cloudy  days,      135 

days  \viih  .01  or  more  of  precipitation,     130 

Above  data  determined  from  twenty-one  years  of  observation. 


26O  CLIMATE. 

WASHINGTON. 

Mr.  H.  F.  Alciatore,  Director  of  the  Weather  Bureau  at 
Olympia,  Wash.,  kindly  supplies  the  following  data  compiled 
from  official  records  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years. 

Temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  37.8  ;  Feb- 
ruary 39.5  ;  March  44.7  ;  April  49.3  ;  May  54.7  ;  June  59.5  ; 
July  62.5;  August  61.6;  September  56.9;  October  51.0; 
November  45.2  ;  December  41.0;  mean  annual  50.3. 

Highest  temperature  on  record,  97°  on  July  27,  1885  ; 
lowest  temperature,  2  degrees  below  zero  on  January  15,  1888. 

Precipitation  in  inches  :  January  8.53  ;  February  7.33  ;  March 
5.20;  April  3.32;  May  5.47  ;  June  1.51;  July  0.82  ;  August 
0.72;  September  2.82;  October  4.51;  November  6.2 1;  De- 
cember 9.74  ;  mean  annual  precipitation  56. 

Relative  Jinniidity  (per  cent):  January  87;  February  86; 
March  83;  April  79;  May  74 ;  June  73;  July  71;  August 
75;  September  80;  October  86;  November  88;  December 
89;  mean  annual  8 1. 

Mean  annual  barometric  pressure  reduced  to  sea-level  and 
corrected  for  temperature,  29.99  inches.  Highest  pressure  on 
record,  30.79  inches  on  February  2,  1880;  lowest  pressure  on 
record,  29.00  inches  on  November  28,  1892. 

GEORGIA. 

Mr.  Park  Morrill,  Local  Forecast  Official  at  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
reports  the  average  temperature  from  a  record  of  fourteen  years 
and  eight  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  42.4  ;  February  47.9; 
March  51.2;  April  61.6;  May  68.8;  June  75.7;  July  77.8; 
August  75.7;  September  71.0;  October  61.6;  November 
50.1  ;  December  45.1  ;  mean  annual  60.7. 

Precipitation  in  inches:  January  6.27  ;  February  5.15  ;  March 
6.16;  April  3.66;  May  3.59;  June  4.43;  July  4. 64;  August 
4.56;  September  4.10  ;  October  2.41  ;  November  4.00  ;  Decem- 
ber 4. 6S  ;  annual  precipitation  53.65. 

The  mean  relative  Jinmidity  is  69.3  per  cent. 

The  mean  barometric  pressure  for  fourteen  years  is  28.918 
corrected  for  temperature  and  instrumental  error  only. 

Atlanta  is  situated  1050  feet  above  sea  level  on  the  most 
Mmtherly  foothill  of  the  Appalachians,  on  the  very  crest  of  the 


TEXAS — CALIFORNIA.  26  I 

ridge,  so  that  the  water  falling  on  one  side  of  the  city  flows  to 
the  Atlantic  and  on  the  other  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  natural 
drainage  is  excellent.  To  these  facts  is  probably  due  its  freedom 
from  epidemic  fevers  and  similar  diseases. 

TEXAS. 

From  Dr.  I.  M.  Cline,  of  Galveston,  Texas,  the  following  data 
concerning  the  climate  of  Galveston  is  compiled,  Texas  being 
a  State  of  such  enormous  dimensions  that  justice  can  hardly  be 
done  to  its  climatological  position  by  considering  merely  one 
locality,  but  space  prevents  us  from  going  more  fully  into  the 
climatology  of  the  different  areas  of  the  State.  Compiled  from 
20  years'  official  records,  the  following  data  will  represent  more 
or  less  accurately  the  climate  of  Galveston  : — * 

Normal  temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.) :  January  52.3  ; 
February  57.7;  March  62.5  ;  April  69.8;  May  76.0;  June  81.9; 
July  81.7  ;  August  82.8  ;  September  78.7  ;  October  72.5  ;  Novem- 
ber 63.7;  December  58.0,  giving  an  annual  temperature  of  70.0. 

The  normal  precipitation  for  the  year  is  52.48  inches,  distrib- 
uted as  follows:  January  3.98;  February  2.98;  March  3.17; 
April  3.37;  May  4.30;  June  4.96 ;  July  2.98;  August  5.51; 
September  7.07  ;  October  4.96  ;  November  4.61  ;  December  4.59. 

The  animal  relative  humidity  is  77  per  cent.,  distributed  as 
follows:  January  79;  February  83 ;  March  79;  April  78; 
May  75;  June  74;  July  74;  August  74;  September  74; 
October  74;  November  78;  December  82. 

CALIFORNIA. 

From  the  Annual  Meteorological  Review,  a  copy  of  which  was 
forwarded  by  James  A.  Barvvick,  Director  of  the  California 
Weather  Service  at  Sacramento,  the  following  meteorological 
data  have  been  compiled. 

California  has  the  most  extensive  variety  in  temperature,  as  well 
as  in  rainfall.  Certain  portions  give  an  annual  temperature  ex- 
tremely high,  especially  in  the  desert  regions,  and  others  a 


*  The  relation  existing  between  mortality  and  different  conditions  of  temperature, 
has  been  thoroughly  studied  by  Dr.  Cline,  and  any  one  desiring  to  familiarize  them- 
selves with  statistics  on  the  subject  will  do  well  to  refer  to  the  Monthly  Bulletins  of 
the  Texas  Weather  Service,  which  contain  Dr.  Cline' s  observations. 


262  CLIMATE. 

temperature  proportionately  low,  this  great  range  being  depen- 
dent upon  the  altitude  attained  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  of 
mountains. 

The  average  temperature  at  Sacramento  is  about  60°  F.,  with 
an  annual  precipitation  of  20  inches;  the  relative  humidity 
averages  between  60  and  65  per  cent.  In  the  extremely  dry 
areas,  in  the  Desert  and  Death  Valley  regions  of  the  State,  the 
precipitation  does  not  exceed  three  inches  annually,  while 
upon  the  north-western  coast  the  rainfall  reaches  from  75  to  IOO 
inches.* 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

From  data  supplied  by  Mr.  von  Herrmann  of  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  the  following  data  are  com- 
piled. Observations  covering  twenty-five  years  give  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  60. 1  F°,  distributed  as  follows  (degrees  F.) : 
January  41.2  ;  February  45.2  ;  March  49.2  ;  April  58.9;  May  68  ; 
June  76.1  ;  July  79.8  ;  August  76.9;  September  71.8  ;  October 
60.8  ;  November  50.4  ;  December  43.2. 

Precipitation  in  inches:  January  3.38;  February  3.67;  March 
4.22;  April  3.15;  May  4.18;  June  4.08;  July  4.82;  August 
6.00;  September  3.52  ;  October  3. 36;  November  2.02 ;  Decem- 
ber 3.27  ;  mean  annual  45.67. 

The  relative  humidity  by  months  :  January  75  ;  February  78  ; 
March  71  ;  April  66;  May  70  ;  June  72;  July  78  ;  August  82  ; 
September  82  ;  October  75  ;  November  74;  December  73. 

NEBRASKA. 

From  Mr.  G.  A.  Loveland,  of  the  Nebraska  Weather  Service, 
we  have  received  the  following  data : — 

Temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  18.4;  February  23.6; 
March  34.5;  April  48.9  ;  May  58.7  ;  June  69.7  ;  July  74.5  ; 
August  72.4  ;  September  63.4  ;  October  50.4 ;  November  34.7; 
December  26.1  ;  mean  annual  47.9. 

Precipitation  by  months  is:   For  January  0.71  ;   February  0.80  ; 


*  The  student  desiring  to  more  thoroughly  investigate  the  climatological  features  of 
the  different  portions  of  California  is  referred  to  the  "  Annual  Meteorological  Review  of 
the  State  of  California,"  compiled  liy  James  A.  Harwick,  which  can  be  found  in  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society  from  1882  to 


ILLINOIS NEVADA WISCONSIN.  263 

March  1.12;  April  2.52;  May  3.80;  June  4.05  ;  July  3.62 ; 
August  2.90;  September  2. OO  ;  October  1.89;  November  0.69  ; 
December  0.74;  mean  annual  24.64  inches. 

ILLINOIS. 

From  Mr.  John  Craig,  Director  of  the  Illinois  Weather  Ser- 
vice, \ve  have  received  the  following  data  : — 

Mean  temperature  and  annual  rainfall  for  this  State,  compiled 
from  data  furnished  by  Illinois  State  Weather  Service  :— 

Temperature  (degrees  F.):  January  23.8;  February  29.8; 
March  37.2;  April  51.7;  May  62.0;  June  70.7;  July  75.8; 
August  73.1;  September  65.2;  October  53. 7;  November  39.2  ; 
December  29.3;  mean  annual  51. 

Precipitation  in  inches  :  January  2.32  ;  February  3.07  ;  March 
2.75  ;  April  3.33;  May  444;  June  4.84;  July  3.18;  August  3.23  ; 
September  2.93  ;  October  3.03  ;  November  3.30  ;  December  2.46; 
mean  annual  38.88. 

NEVADA. 

From  Mr.  Ford  A.  Carpenter,  Observer,  Weather  Bureau,  at 
Carson  City,  Nevada,  we  have  received  the  following  data  : — 

Temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  30.7;  February  33.3; 
March  40.8;  April  47.7;  May  56.9;  June  64.2;  July  70.8; 
August  69.2  ;  September  62.4;  October  47.7  ;  November  37.2  ; 
December  34.7  ;  mean  annual  49.6. 

Precipitation  is  about  12  inches  annually,  distributed  as  follows : 
January  1.89;  February  1.58;  March  1.58;  April  i.oS;May 
0.71;  June  0.44;  July  0.20;  August  0.15;  September  0.28; 
October  0.37  ;  November  1.40;  December  2.37. 

The  relative  humidity  for  the  State  averages  about  52  percent., 
lowest  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  and  reaching 
its  maximum  during  December  and  January. 

From  several  years'  averages,  \ve  find  that  during  the  year 
Carson  City  has  a  mean  of  245  cloudless  days  and  60  days  on 
which  .01  of  an  inch  or  more  precipitation  fell. 

WISCONSIN. 

From  W.  L.  Moore,  Local  Forecast  Official,  of  Wisconsin 
Weather  Service,  the  following  climatologic  data  have  been 
obtained : — 


264  CLIMATE. 

Temperature  (in  degrees  F):  January  19.7;  February  23.5  ; 
March  30.0;  April  42.4;  May  52.9;  June  62.8;  July  69.0; 
August  68.0;  September  60.9;  October  49.3  ;  November  35.0; 
December  25.7;  mean  annual  temperature  45. 

Precipitation  in  inches:  January  2.23  ;  February  1.90;  March 
2.5  i  ;  April  2.79  ;  May  3.57  ;  June  4. 10  ;  July  3.23  ;  August  2.93 ; 
September  2.78  ;  October  2.49  ;  November  2.06  ;  December  2.01 ; 
mean  annual  about  32  inches.  The  maximum  rainfall  is  reached 
in  June  and  the  minimum  in  February. 

The  average  relative  humidity  is  about  74.6  per  cent.,  and 
the  mean  annual  barometric  pressure,  uncorrected,  is  29.26 
inches. 

Above  data  compiled  from  twenty-two  years'  observations. 

IOWA. 

From  documents  furnished  by  Dr.  George  M.  Chappel,  Local 
Forecast  Official  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  the  following  data  have 
been  compiled.  By  observations  covering  many  years,  it  is 
found  that  the  climatologic  features  as  observed  at  Des  Moines 
practically  represent  the  mean  for  the  State  and  are  as  follows  : — 

Temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  17.5;  February  23.5; 
March  33.9;  April  50.1;  May  60.2;  June  69.7;  July  74.3; 
August  71.8;  September  63.0 ;  October  52. 2;  November  36.8  ; 
December  260;  mean  annual  48.2. 

Precipitation  in  inches  35.66,  divided  as  follows  :  January 
1.42;  Febiuary  2.35;  March  1.52;  April  2.62;  May  5.20;  June 
5.68;  July  3. 79;  August  3. 44;  September  3.04 ;  October  3.47  ; 
November  1.82  ;  December  1.31. 

The  average  relative  humidity  is  70.6,  varying  but  little  for  the 
different  months  of  the  year. 

Mean  uncorrected  barometric  pressure  29.12  inches. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  J.  II.  Harmon,  Director  of  the 
South  Carolina  Weather  Service,  we  are  indebted  to  Dr. 
\V.  W.  Anderson,  of  the  Statesburg  Weather  Service,  for  the 
following  data,  estimated  from  ten  years'  observations  : — 

Monthly  mean  temperature  (degrees  F.): — January  44.7;  Feb- 
ruary 50.8;  March  52.6;  April  62.7;  May  70.1;  June  76.4; 


NORTH  DAKOTA — OKLAHOMA.  265 

July  78.1  ;  August  76.6  ;  September  72.4;  October  6j ,<j  ;  No- 
vember 53.6;  December  47. 8. 

Precipitation  in  inches  :  January  3.68  ;  February  3.06  ;  March 
3.91  ;  April  2.O2  ;  May  3.62  ;  June  3.62;  July  4.83  ;  August  4.48  ; 
September  3.48  ;  October  2.78  ;  November  1.87  ;  December  2.83. 

No  statement  as  to  mean  relative  humidity  or  barometric  pres- 
sure could  be  obtained. 

NORTH   DAKOTA. 

Mr.  \V.  II.  Fallon,  Director  of  the  State  Weather  Service  at 
Bismarck,  North  Dakota,  supplies  the  following  data  : — 

Temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  O.8  (below  zero) ;  February 
5.6;  March  21.3;  April  40.0;  May  53.1  ;  June  63.6;  July  68. 6; 
August  64.9  ;  September  54.6  ;  October  42  O  ;  November  26.0; 
December  10.2;  mean  annual  37.4. 

Precipitation  in  inches:  January  0.64;  February  O.6o ;  March 
0.68;  April  1.68;  May  2.25;  June  3.53;  July  2.86;  August 
2.16;  September  1.63;  October  1.55;  November  0.58  ;  Decem- 
ber 0.72;  annual  18.90.  The  average  summer  temperature  is 
66  degrees,  and  the  average  winter  temperature  5  degrees.  The 
lowest  recorded  temperature  from  records  of  17  years  is  ^4 
degrees  below  zero  at  Pembina;  the  highest  temperature  re- 
corded in  the  State  during  a  similar  period  is  107  degrees  at 
Fort  Buford. 

Relative  humidity :  Average  annual,  74  per  cent.  Northeast 
section  79;  southeast  75;  northwest  70;  southwest  71.  (Ab- 
solute humidity  100.)  Mean  winter  relative  humidity  about 
80  ;  mean  summer  relative  humidity  about  70. 

Average  number  of  days  each  month  on  which  .01  of  an  inch 
or  more  precipitation  occurs,  9.  From  September  to  December, 
inclusive,  the  average  is  6!j  inches;  from  May  to  July,  in- 
clusive, the  number  is  I  I. 

Average  annual  barometric  pressure,  reduced  to  sea-level, 
30.02  inches.  Northwest  and  southwest  sections  30.01  ;  north- 
east 30.03  ;  southeast  30.02. 

OKLAHOMA. 

From  Mr.  J.  I.  Widmeyer,  of  the  Oklahoma  Weather  Service, 
the  followin  data  have  been  received  : — 


266  CLIMATE. 

Temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  35  ;  February  42  ;  March 
44;  April  60  ;  May  65  ;  June  75  ;  July  78  ;  August  77  ;  September 
72;  October  61  ;  November 46;  December 40;  mean  annual  58. 

Precipitation  in  inches :  January  1.70;  February  1.33  ;  March 
3.10;  April  2.82  ;  May  8.91  ;  June  3.60  ;  July  4.92  ;  August 
2.5 };  September  3.36  ;  October  2. 50;  November  1.09  ;  Decem- 
ber 4.00  ;  mean  annual  39.89  inches. 

Oklahoma  City  has  an  altitude  of  1239  feet  with  a  relative  humid- 
ity of  73  per  cent,  and  a  total  rainfall  of  39.89  inches,  and  as  Mr. 
\Vidmeyer  points  out,  the  location  between  the  35th  and  39th  par- 
allels of  latitude  places  the  region  in  an  area  not  subject  to  the 
excessive  cold  of  the  North  or  to  the  extreme  heat  of  the  South. 

These  data  are  collected  from  records  extending  back  to 
November  I,  1890. 

ARKANSAS. 

Reports  covering  a  period  of  fourteen  years,  from  Little  Rock, 
Arkansas,  afford  the  following  averages,  obtained  from  Mr.  F. 
H.  Clarke,  Director  of  the  Arkansas  Weather  Service  : — 

Mean  temperature  by  months  (degrees  F.)  :  January  40.8  ; 
February  46.7;  March  52.2;  April  63.5  ;  May  70.0;  June  77.7; 
July8i.o;  August  79.0 ;  September  73.0;  October  63.7;  No- 
vember 51.2;  December  45.3  ;  average  62.0. 

The  precipitation  by  months  (in  inches):  January  4.83;  Feb- 
ruary 5.70  ;  March  4.75  ;  April  5.04;  May  5. 54;  June  4.24  ; 
July  3.83;  August  4.12;  September  3.25;  October  2.50;  No- 
vember 5.71  ;  December  4.65  ;  average  annual  54.16  inches. 

Relative  humidity  (per  cent.):  January  76;  February  73; 
March  68  ;  April  68  ;  May  74  ;  June  77  ;  July  75  ;  August 
76;  September  76  ;  October  74  ;  November  73;  December  74  ; 
mean  74  per  cent. 

The  climatic  data  of  Little  Rock  gives  a  fair  average  for 
Arkansas,  as  it  is  situated  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  State.  In 
the  southern  counties  the  temperature  is  slightly  higher,  while 
in  the  northern  counties,  particularly  on  the  elevated  plateaus 
of  the  northwest,  the  temperature  is  much  lower;  thus  Fayctte- 
ville,  Washington  County,  gives  the  following  seasonable 
temperature  deduced  from  six  years'  record :  Spring  57.2;  sum- 
mer 74.2  ;  autumn  60. o;  winter  37.6. 


LOUISIANA TENNESSEE.  267 

LOUISIANA. 

From  the  office  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  at  New  Orleans, 
La.,  Captain  Robt.  K.  Kerkam,  Local  Forecast  Official  and 
Director,  the  following  resume  of  the  climatologic  features  of 
New  Orleans,  compiled  from  records  of  twenty  years,  have  been 
obtained  : — 

Mean  temperature  (degrees  F.)  :  January  53.8;  February 
58.5;  March  62.5  ;  April  69.5  ;  May  75.1  ;  June  80.2  ;  July  82.6; 
August  81.5;  September  78.2;  October  70.7  ;  November  61.7  ; 
December  56.5  ;  mean  annual  69.2. 

Maximum  temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  62  ;  February 
82;  March  84;  April  88  ;  May  92  ;  June  97  ;  July  96;  August 
96;  September  94;  October  90;  November  85  ;  December  80. 

Minimum  temperature  (degrees  F.) :  January  15;  February 
25;  March  30;  April  38;  May  54;  June  58;  July  68;  August 
63  ;  September  56;  October  40;  November  30  ;  December  20. 

Precipitation  in  inches  :  January  5.40;  February  4.30;  March 
5.68;  April  5.38;  May  5.32  ;  June  6.77  ;  July  642  ;  August  6.20; 
September  4.93  ;  October  3.42  ;  November  4.46;  December  4.74  ; 
annual  63.02. 

JL-an  humidity  (per  cent.):  January  742;  February  71.8; 
March  71.3;  April  71.4;  May  71.7;  June  74.2;  July  74.4; 
August  75.1  ;  September  74.3  ;  October  72.0;  November  72.9  ; 
December  74.6,  with  an  annual  humidity  of  73.2. 

Mean  annual  barometer  30.00  inches. 

Prevailing  winds:  January,  N.  ;  February,  S.  E. ;  March, 
S.  E. ;  April,  S.  E. ;  May,  S.  E. ;  June,  S.  E. ;  July,  S.  E. ; 
August,  S.  E. ;  September,  E. ;  October,  N.  E. ;  November,  N. ; 
December,  N. 

Average  number  of  clear,  partly  cloudy,  cloudy,  and  rainy  days,  re- 
spectively :  January,  8,  12,  u,  10;  February,  8,  11,9,  9  ;  March, 
10,  10,  11,9;  April,  11,  11,8,  10;  May,  11,  14,6,  10;  June,  8, 
16,  6,  14;  July,  8,  17,  6,  16  ;  August,  8,  17,  6,  14;  September, 
u,  13,  6,  11;  October,  15,  11,  5,  7;  November,  12,9,9,9; 
December,  9,  12,  10,  11. 

Average  date  of  first  frost  of  fall  and  winter:    November  25. 

TENNESSEE. 

From   data   supplied   by   Mr.  J.  B.  Marbury,  Local    Forecast 


268  CLIMATE. 

Official  at  Nashville,  Tennessee,  the  following  data  have  been 
compiled  : — 

Me  an  annual  temperature  is  about  60°  P.,  distributed  as  follows  : 
January  34  ;  February  45  ;  March  51  ;  April  62  ;  May  73  ;  June 
77  ;  Jl'ly  7$  ;  August  79  ;  September  68  ;  October  58  ;  November 
41  ;  December  36. 

The  mean  annual  precipitation  is  60  inches,  although  of  late 
years  there  has  been  a  gradual  decline  in  rainfall,  not  commonly 
rising  to  that  height.  The  following  figures  give  a  proximate 
average  for  several  years  :  January  3.73  ;  February  7.89  ;  March 
3.94;  April  9.10;  May  4.79;  June  3. 79;  July  4.84  ;  August  4.39  ; 
September  2.19  ;  October  5.24;  November  3.07  ;  December  4.93. 

The  annual  mean  relative  humidity  ranges  about  70,  with  the 
highest  in  the  winter  and  the  lowest  in  the  summer  months. 

The  mean  barometric  pressure  at  Nashville  is  29.48  inches. 

UTAH. 

Mr.  Geo.  N.  Salisbury,  of  Salt  Lake  City,  sends  tha  following 
d.ita  compiled  from  nineteen  years'  observations  : — 

The  average  temperature  for  the  above  period  (mean  annual 
temperature)  51.8°  F.  By  months:  January  27.7;  February 
33  4  ;  March  42.0;  April  50.8  ;  May  59.3  ;  June  68.1  ;  July  75.5  ; 
August  74  9;  September  63.9 ;  October  5  1.2;  November  40.0; 
December  34.5.  1 1 ighest  temperature  on  record  102  F.  Lowest 
temperature  recorded  2O  below  xero.  A  below  zero  tempera- 
ture is  very  rarely  reached. 

Average  relative  Jiumidity :  Mean  annual  50  per  cent.  By 
months:  January  65  ;  February  63;  March  54  ;  April  50;  May 
46  ;  June  40  ;  July  36  ;  August  37  ;  September  38  ;  October  38  ; 
November  56  ;  December  66  per  cent. 

Average  barometric  pressure  at  this  elevation  (4345  feet)  25.64 
inches. 

At  Salt  Lake  City  the  average  annual  precipitation,  1874  to 
1890,  inclusive,  was  16.71  inches.  By  months  as  follows: 
January  1.52;  February  1.38;  March  1.92;  April  2.36;  May 
1.78;  June  0.75  ;  July  0.51  ;  August  0.81  ;  September  0.83; 
October  1.70;  November  1.43;  December  1.66.  The  above 
averages  have  not  materially  changed  since  1890.  From  middle 
ol  May  to  ist  of  October  is  the  dry  season. 


NEW    JERSEY — MARYLAND.  269 

The  figures  answer  pretty  well  for  the  valleys  of  Northern 
Utah.  At  Ogden  the  precipitation  appears  to  be  somewhat 
greater,  two  to  four  inches  annually.  This  may  be  due  to  slight 
discrepancy  in  measurement. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

From  Mr.  K.  \V.  McGann,  Director  of  the  New  Jersey 
Weather  Service,  we  are  informed  "  that  the  normal  rainfall  in 
New  Jersey  is  46.88  inches.  The  wet  season  or  period  of  heavy 
rainfall  is  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  and  the 
dry  season,  September,  October,  and  November.  The  average 
temperature  by  months  in  degrees  Fahrenheit  is:  January  30.4; 
February  32.3;  March  36.9;  April  49.1  ;  May  60.2;  June  70.0; 
Ju'y  73-5;  August  71.7;  September  65.0;  October  53.2;  No- 
vember 42.7  ;  December  53.7,  and  the  annual  51.6.  No  obser- 
vations of  the  barometer  and  hygrometer-are  taken." 

MARYLAND. 

From  Dr.  C.  P.  Cronk  we  have  received  the  following  data, 
compiled  from  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  co-operating  with  the  Maryland  State  Weather 
Service  : — 

The  mean  temperature  of  Maryland  is  538°  F.,  divided  as 
follows:  January  32.8;  February  34.8;  March  39.6;  April 
51.7;  May  62.6  ;  June  72.5  ;  July  72.5  ;  August  74.3  ; 
September  66.9  ;  October  54.7  ;  November  44.0  ;  December  35.3. 

Precipitation  in  inches  42.43,  distributed  as  follows:  January 
3.31;  February  3.07;  March  3.92;  April  3.75;  May  4.21; 
June  3.72;  July  4. 11  ;  August  3.77;  September  3.67;  October 
2.75  ;  November  3.22  ;  December  2.69. 

Relative  Jntmidity  (Baltimore,  which  is  slightly  lower  than  the 
mean  for  the  State)  is  56.3  per  cent,  for  the  year;  distributed 
as  follows:  January  70;  February  65  ;  March  64;  April  61  ; 
May  65  ;  June  68  ;  July  68  ;  August  70;  September  74;  Octo- 
ber 68;  November  70;  December  68.  Prevailing  direction  of 
wind  at  Baltimore,  northwest  from  October  to  April,  inclusive  ; 
southeast  during  May  and  June;  southwest  during  June  and 
July,  and  north  during  September. 

Compiled  from  twenty-two  years'  records. 


2/O  CLIMATE. 

NEW  MEXICO. 

From  Mr.  H.  B.  Hersey,  Observer,  Weather  Bureau,  Santa 
Fe,  New  Mexico,  the  following  data  have  been  received : — 

Temperature  (degrees  F.)  :  January  27.4;  February  33.8; 
March  40.7;  April  47.6;  May  55.9;  June  64.8;  July  70.0; 
August  67.6;  September  61.0;  October  50.9 ;  November  38.6 ; 
December  32.4;  mean  annual  49.2. 

Precipitation  in  inches:  January  0.55  ;  February  0.83  ;  March 
0.66;  April  2.18;  May  1.03;  June  0.83;  July  0.58;  August 
2.18;  September  1.57;  October  0.8 1;  November  0.76;  Decem- 
ber 1.03,  giving  a  total  rainfall  of  12.71. 

Relative  liuuiidity  (per  cent.) :  January  60.8  ;  February  57.0  5 
March  48.3;  April  42.7;  May  39.4;  June  36.0;  July  46.4; 
August  49.2  ;  September  50.4;  October  45. 6;  November  50.9  ; 
December  59.2  ;  mean  annual  less  than  50. 

This  indicates  an  extremely  dry  climate  with  comparatively 
low  summer  temperature  and  reasonably  high  winter  tempera- 
ture. The  above  means,  taken  from  ten  years'  observation, 
show  the  wet  season  to  consist  of  the  five  months  from  May  to 
September,  inclusive. 

NEW  YORK. 

From  Mr.  E.  T.  Turner,  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  E. 
A.  Fucrtes,  Director  of  the  Central  Office  of  the  Meteoro- 
logic  Bureau  in  New  York,  we  are  indebted  for  the  following 
data  : — 

The  warmest  section  of  New  York  is  that  adjacent  to  the 
Atlantic  coast,  the  normals  for  which  are  (degrees  F.) :  January 
30.5  ;  February  31.5  ;  March  35.9;  April  46.7  ;  May  57.6  ;  June 
67.0;  July  72.3  ;  August  71.1  ;  September  65.3  ;  October  55.1  ; 
November  43.9;  December  34.5;  mean  annual  50.8.  The  ex- 
treme northern  section  of  the  State  is  the  coldest :  January  15.9  ; 
February  17.3;  March  26.5;  April  404;  May  55.5;  June 
64.2;  July  68.2;  August  65.9;  September  58.4;  October 
45.7  ;  November  32.2  ;  December  22.2  ;  mean  animal  42.8. 

Mean  for  the  State:  January  21.5;  February  22.8  ;  March 
29.1;  April  42.2;  May  55.6;  June  64.9;  July  69.2;  August 
67.3;  September  60.3;  October  48.3  ;  November  36.2;  De- 
cember 26.3;  mean  annual  45.3. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


271 


Precipitation  for  January  2.64;  February  2.44  ;  March  2.75; 
April  2.71  ;  May  3.35  ;  June  3.70;  July  3.7X1  August  3.31; 
September  3.22;  October  3.52;  November  3.11;  December 
2.82;  mean  annual  37.35  inches. 

The  season  of  maximum  rainfall  is  the  summer  months 
(10.79);  tne  minimum  precipitation  is  during  the  months  in 
winter  (7.90  inches).  The  proximity  of  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  State  to  the  seashore  gives  the  maximum 
amount  of  rainfall  44.70  inches,  while  along  the  Champlain 
Valley  the  minimum  is  reached,  29.89  inches. 

The  relative  humidity,  taken  from  a  record  of  thirteen  years 
at  Albany,  is  70  per  cent. ;  in  New  York  from  sixteen  years' 
record  it  is  70  per  cent.;  in  Oswego  for  sixteen  years,  71 
per  cent.  Albany  here  represents  the  inland  stations,  New 
York  the  Atlantic  Coast  stations,  and  Oswego  stations  on  the 
Great  Lakes. 

The  barometric  pressure,  corrected  for  altitude  and  tempera- 
ture, gives  mean  annual  of  30.03  inches  for  the  State. 

AVERAGE  DATFS  OF  KILLING  FROSTS. 


STATION. 

New  York  City  (repre-  "j 
senting  Atlantic  Coast  \ 
Line),  J 

Rochester  (representing 
colder  part  of  Great 
Lake  Region), 

Erie,  Pa.  (near  N.  Y.  bor- 
der), (rep.  warmer 
part  G.  L.  Region), 

Cooperstown  (c  o  1  d  e  r  ~| 
part  of  Central  High-  I 
lands),  J 


LAST  IN  SPRING.          FIKST  IN  AUTTMN.     LENGTH  OF  RECORD 


April  I3th 
May  5th 
April  230 


November  5th 
October  i^th 
October  joth 

September  27th 


18  years. 


18 


PENNSYLVANIA.* 

H.  L.  Ball,  Observer,  Weather  Bureau,  Assistant  Director 
Pennsylvania  State  Weather  Service  : — 

In  consequence  of  the  singularly  complicated  surface  of  Penn- 
sylvania, it  is  extremely  difficult  to  give,  in  a  condensed  form. 


*  Following  "  Blodgett's  Climatology  of  Pennsylvania." 


2J2  CLIMATE. 

even  an  approximate  distribution  of  heat  and  precipitation — 
the  two  most  important  meteorologic  elements  affecting  human 
life  and  pursuits. 

Reference  to  a  topographic  map  shows,  first,  a  large  area 
south  and  east  of  the  mountains,  lying  at  a  general  level  not 
greatly  elevated,  and  with  drainage  toward  the  Atlantic.  This 
great  plain,  150  miles  long  and  40  miles  broad,  is  traversed  by 
ridges  of  more  elevated  land,  rising  to  heights  of  600,  800,  and 
even  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Allegheny  Mountains  traverse  the  State  a  distance  of  230 
miles,  and  reach  an  elevation  of  2000,  and  at  many  places  2500 
or  more  feet.  Among  the  labyrinth  of  mountains  in  this  section 
may  be  found  many  elevated  plateaus,  in  which  lie  embosomed 
a  multitude  of  beautiful  lakes,  with  surrounding  scenery  unsur- 
passed by  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

The  surface  of  Northwestern  Pennsylvania  is  less  rugged  than 
the  central  part,  but  the  land  lies  at  a  high  elevation  and  is 
everywhere  broken  by  deep  ravines.  West  of  the  rough  section 
in  McKean,  Venango,  and  Warren  Counties  extends  the  high 
plateau  which  breaks  down  sharply,  1000  or  more  feet,  a  few- 
miles  from  Lake  Erie,  to  the  comparatively  low  lake  level.  In 
the  southwest  are  also  high  table  lands,  lying  nearly  2000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  almost  surrounded  by  the  great  rivers  of 
that  section. 

Considering  these  topographic  divisions  in  order,  we  at  once 
see  the  great  effect  the  character  of  the  land  surface  has  upon 
the  climate.  In  the  southeastern  or  seaboard  district  and  in  the 
Ohio  Valley  on  the  west,  the  summer  heats  are  more  than 
tropical,  while  in  the  elevated  regions  of  the  northeast  and  the 
high  plateau  in  the  northwest,  the  winters  are  often  of  great 
severity.  There  is  a  difference  of  from  two  to  four  degrees 
between  the  temperature  of  the  deep  valleys  and  the  highlands. 
Blodgett  in  his  "  Climatology  of  Pennsylvania"  gives  an  apparent 
rule  applicable  to  the  decrease  in  heat  due  to  elevation  ;  that  rule 
being  approximately  one  degree  for  every  five  hundred  feet  at 
l"\v  elevation,  and  one  degree  for  every  six  hundred  feet  in  the 
mountains  and  higher  plateaus.  We  also  clearly  note  the  effect 
of  topography  upon  precipitation  distribution, — which  will  be 
tn-at'-d  of  further  on. 


PENNSYLVANIA.  273 

The  normal  temperature  for  the  southeastern  district  of  Penn- 
sylvania is  about  51.9°  F.  For  the  seasons  we  have  :  spring, 
49.6°  F.;  summer,  72.7°  F.;  autumn,  53.7°  F.,  and  winter,  31.5°  F. 

The  distribution  of  precipitation  in  this  section  is  worthy  of 
note  and  well  illustrates  the  effect  of  topography.  In  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  Philadelphia  the  average  yearly  precipitation  is 
about  44  inches,  while  at  West  Chester  and  over  a  large  belt 
extending  northeastward  to  the  Delaware  the  mean  annual  pre- 
cipitation exceeds  48  inches.  Beyond  this  belt  and  covering  the 
lower  Susquehanna  Valley  the  mean  lowers,  until  at  Gettysburg 
an  average  of  39  inches  is  had. 

Northeastern  Pennsylvania  is  represented  by  records  from  five 
places,  extending  over  a  period  from  8  to  28  years.  These  give 
a  normal  temperature  of  45.6°  F.,  with  the  seasons  as  follows: 
spring,  43.3°;  summer,  66.8°  ;  autumn,  47.7°,  and  winter,  24.9°. 
The  annual  precipitation  is  less  than  40  inches  in  the  extreme 
northeastern  counties,  and  increases  to  48  inches  further  south- 
ward. 

Northern  Central  Pennsylvania  is  deeply  cut  with  the  great 
river  valleys  which  modify  the  climate  to  a  considerable  degree. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  Susquehanna  Valley.  Representa- 
tive positions  in  this  district  give  the  following  normals  in 
degrees  F. :  yearly,  48.0°  ;  spring,  45.7° ;  summer,  69.2° ;  autumn, 
49.6°,  and  winter,  27.9°.  The  mean  precipitation  varies  greatly, 
ranging  from  40  inches  at  Williamsport  to  50  inches  in  a  large 
area  embracing  Clearfield,  Cameron,  and  portions  of  Clinton, 
Elk,  Forest,  and  Clarion  Counties.  Surrounding  this  area  are 
belts  in  which  the  annual  precipitation  varies  from  40  to  48 
inches. 

The  hills  and  plateaus  of  Northwestern  Pennsylvania  are 
colder  than  the  region  bordering  on  Lake  Erie,  and  about  as 

o  o 

cold  as  any  of  the  eastern  highlands.  There  is,  however,  no 
district  with  a  mean  temperature  much  below  44°.  At  Erie, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  lake,  the  mean  temperature  is  49°  ; 
the  summer  months  being  from  5°  to  7°  cooler,  and  the  winter 
months  correspondingly  warmer  than  the  interior.  Selected 
stations  in  this  district,  including  Erie,  give  the  following  normals 
in  degrees  F. :  yearly,  47°  ;  spring,  44°;  summer,  68°  ;  autumn, 
49°  ;  winter,  26.°  From  Meadville  southward  the  climate  is  sen- 


274  CLIMATE. 

sibly  modified  by  the  warmer  western  and  southwestern  sections, 
giving  Meadville  nearly  the  same  mean  temperature  as  has  Erie, 
and  from  3°  to  4°  warmer  than  the  adjacent  eastern  highlands. 
The  rainfall  in  this  section  is  remarkably  uneven,  ranging  from 
40  to  50  inches  in  the  interior  highlands,  and  to  60  inches  in  the 
Erie  belt.  In  the  last  named  area  is  found  the  greatest  yearly 
rainfall  of  any  section  of  the  State. 

Western  Pennsylvania's  climate  is  similar  to  that  found  in  the 
eastern  counties  upon  the  same  latitude.  Advancing  southward, 
the  mean  temperature  rises  from  48°  at  Meadville  to  51°  at 
Beaver  and  Kittanning,  and  the  increase  is  still  more  apparent 
in  the  river  valleys  tributary  to  the  Ohio.  Taking  the  records 
of  New  Castle,  Butler,  Pittsburgh,  and  Allegheny  Arsenal  (near 
Pittsburgh)  we  have  a  yearly  mean  of  51.5°,  with  the  seasons 
as  follows:  spring,  50°;  summer,  72°;  autumn,  53°,  and  winter, 
31°.  The  precipitation  varies  from  36  inches  at  New  Castle 
and  Butler  to  44  inches  at  Meadville.  In  the  Lower  Ohio  Val- 
ley the  precipitation  increases  to  nearly  44  inches  yearly.  Pitts- 
burgh with  37.4°  and  Beaver  with  43.9°  inches,  yearly,  illus- 
trate the  increase. 

The  southwestern  section  enters  to  a  considerable  degree 
into  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  is  fairly,  represented  by  Canonsburg  in 
Washington  County.  The  heat  of  summer  here  is  fully  equal 
to  the  seaboard  district  in  the  same  latitude,  though  the  winters 
are  colder.  Combining  the  records  of  Canonsburg,  Fayette 
Tannery,  Somerset,  Johnstown,  and  Bedford,  we  have  the  follow- 
ing  means:  yearly,  49°  ;  spring,  48°  ;  summer,  70°  ;  autumn,  50°, 
and  winter,  30°.  These  means  are  considerably  lower  than 
would  be  obtained  by  considering  alone  the  records  of  Canons- 
burg and  Fayette  Tannery.  Somerset,  Johnstown,  and  Bedford 
are  all  in  the  highlands  and  their  climate  is  more  nearly  like 
that  of  the  mountains.  The  rainfall  varies  from  36  inches  at 
Canonsburg  to  nearly  48  inches  at  Johnstown,  while  a  small 
area  in  Fayette  and  Greene  Counties  has  over  50  inches  yearly. 

Pennsylvania's  climate  is  somewhat  warmer  than  the  mean  of 
the  temperate  latitudes  in  the  same  position  relatively.  At 
Philadelphia  and  vicinity  the  winters  are  generally  mild,  with  a 
light  snowfall.  The  summers  are  warm  and  the  heat  is  prolonged 
well  into  autumn.  A  similar  climate  exists  in  the  Ohio  Valley 


NEW    ENGLAND    STATES. 


2/5 


south  of  Pittsburgh.  Again,  the  summers  of  McKean,  Tioga, 
Potter,  and  other  counties  along  the  northern  border  are  cool, 
and  in  excessively  cool  years  frosts  have  occurred  during  every 
month.  Along  the  lower  Delaware  frosts  are  not  infrequently 
delayed  until  the  middle  of  November.  Temperatures  as  low  as 
25°  below  zero  have  been  recorded  in  the  colder  districts,  and 
Major  Mordecai  at  Frankford  Arsenal  observed  a  temperature  of 
7°  below  zero  in  February,  1836.  The  lowest  temperature  record- 
ed by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  during  20  years  in  Philadelphia 
was  5°  below  zero  on  January  10,  1875,  and  again  on  December 
30,  1880.  During  the  same  period  the  highest  temperature  ob- 
served at  Philadelphia  was  101.5°  on  September  7,  1881. 

"Altogether,  Pennsylvania  has  a  climate  highly  favored  in 
many  respects;  usually  dry,  clear,  elastic,  and  invigorating,  it 
is  the  best  of  the  temperate  latitudes,  and  its  very  extremes  are 
favorable  to  mental  and  physical  activity." 

NEW  ENGLAND  STATES. 

The  following  data  have  been  complied  from  records  furnished 
by  the  New  England  Meteorological  Society,  through  the  court- 
esy of  Edward  C.  Pickering,  Director : — 

The  climate  of  the  New  England  States  consists  of  two 
distinct  zones  with  marked  climatologic  difference.  These  are 
subdivided  by  differences  due  to  latitude  extending  from  the 
4 1st  parallel  to  the  47th  (nearly),  a  gradual  ascent  showing 
marked  difference  between  the  two  extremes.  This  area  is  again 
punctuated,  as  it  were,  by  all  interminglings  of  altitude  from  sea- 
level  to  Mount  Washington  in  New  Hampshire  (6234  ft.)  or 
Mount  Katahdin  in  Maine  (5000  ft.),  and  further  variations  are 
assured  by  wooded  and  cultivated  areas  intermingled  with  each 
other  in  varying  proportions.  The  long  seacoast  makes  the 
climate  of  that  region,  or  belt,  what  is  known  as  a  marine  climate. 
While  the  interior  constitutes  a  varied  land  climate. 

The  zone  of  marine  climate  extends  from  St.  John,  X.  B. 
(almost),  to  Greenwich,  Connecticut,  about  one-fourth  the  entire 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  widest  along  the  Maine  coast  by  reason  of  the  numer- 
ous inlets  and  bays,  such  as  Frenchman's  Bay,  Penobscot  Bay, 
and  Casco  Bay,  although  Massachusetts  Bay,  Cape  Cod  Bay, 


276  CLIMATE. 

Buzzard's  Bay,  Narragansett  Bay,  and  Long  Island  Sound 
make  the  entire  coast  one  of  the  most  salubrious  summer  cli- 
mates in  the  world.  The  summer  temperature  is  low,  as  is  also 
the  precipitation  and  relative  humidity.  The  extreme  northern 
limit  of  climatologic  record  for  the  coast  is  St.  John,  N.  B., 
with  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  40.6°  F.,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows in  degrees  F. :  January  18.6;  February  21  ;  March  27.7; 
April  37.5  ;  May  47  ;  June  55.3  ;  July  60.3  ;  August  60. 1  ;  Sep- 
tember 55;  October  45.8;  November  36.8;  December  22.6. 
The  annual  precipitation  is  53.78  inches. 

Annual  mean  relative  humidity  is  high,  exceeding  80  percent. 
The  constancy  of  the  climate  is  one  of  its  most  salient  features, 
as  rapid  variations  are  not  frequent  and  it  does  not  make  great 
rises  or  falls.  Following  down  the  coast  belt,  Bar  Harbor  comes 
next  in  importance,  with  a  fairly  constant  normal  temperature  for 
each  month  :  January  22  ;  February  22.2  ;  March  30.4;  April 
41.4;  May  52.4;  June '60.5;  July  65.3  ;  August  64.1;  Septem- 
ber 58.2;  October  47.3;  November  39.3;  December  26.8. 
Mean  relative  humidity  is  not  attainable  from  tables  at  hand,  but 
adjacent  points  give  a  mean  summer  humidity  of  74.  At  Boston 
the  temperature  shows  a  marked  rise  above  the  two  points  just 
given,  the  mean  annual  temperature  being  48.2  F.,  distributed 
in  months  as  follows  (degrees  F.) :  January  26.2;  February  28; 
March  33.8  ;  April  44.5  ;  May  56.3  ;  June  66  ;  July  70.9  ;  August 
69  ;  September  62.0  ;  October  5  1.4  ;  November  40.3  ;  December 
30.5.  The  precipitation,  for  same  period,  in  inches  was  the  fol- 
lowing: January  4. 21;  February  3.57  ;  March  4.28  ;  April  3.60  ; 
May  3.58;  June  3.29;  July  3.57  ;  August  4.09;  September  3.16  ; 
October  4. 1 2  ;  November  4.78  ;  December  3.42,  giving  a  mean 
annual  rainfall  of  45.67  inches.  The  mean  annual  relative  hu- 
midity is  about  73  per  cent. 

New  Haven  possesses  an  even  climate  without  marked 
changes,  and  represents  the  climatology  of  the  northern  shore 
of  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  southern  coast  of  Rhode  Island. 
Its  mean  annual  temperature  is  49.1°  V.,  distributed  in  months 
as  follows  (degrees  F.) :  January  26.7;  February  28.3;  March 
35-8;  April  46. S  ;  May  57.3  ;  June  67.0;  July  71. 7;  August 
70.2  ;  September  62.6;  October  51.4  ;  November  40.5  ;  Decem- 
ber 3n.S.  The  mean  annual  precipitation  is  50.39  inches,  dis- 


NEW    ENGLAND    STATES.  277 

tributed  in  the  following  proportions:  January  4.21  ;  February 
4.23  ;  March  4.80;  April  3.86;  May  3.54;  June  3.26;  July  5.37  ; 
August  5.50;  September  3.91  ;  October  4.14  ;  November  3.96; 
December  3.61.  The  mean  relative  humidity  for  1X91  was  78, 
a  slight  excess  over  the  normal. 

For  the  interior  of  the  New  England  States  only  a  few  fairly 
representative  localities  can  be  presented,  and  these  with  only 
brief  data,  as  fuller  observations  are  not  on  record. 

Hanover  is  situated  above  midway  of  the  area  occupied  by 
the  two  States,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont,  credited  geo- 
graphically as  a  part  of  New  Hampshire.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  42°  F.,  distributed  through  the  year  as  follows 
(in  degrees  F.) :  January  160;  February  18.8  ;  March  28.2; 
April  40.8;  May  54  5  ;  June  64.2;  July  66.7  ;  August  66.7; 
September  56.7;  October  45.0;  November  33.6;  December 
2O.  I. 

The  annual  precipitation  is  32.99  inches,  a  marked  lessening 
from  Eastport,  Me.,  for  example,  on  the  coast  zone  at  almost  the 
same  latitude,  but  possessing  an  annual  precipitation  of  a  frac- 
tion less  than  50  inches.  The  rainfall  of  Hanover  is  distributed 
for  months  as  follows:  January  2.70;  February  2.05;  March 
2.48;  April  1.96;  May  3.09;  June  34;  July  3.16;  August  3.11  ; 
September  3.00;  October  2.86;  November  2.75;  December 
2.39.  Relative  humidity  74  per  cent. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State 
west  of  the  center,  and  presents  the  climate  of  Southwestern 
Massachusetts  and  Northern  Connecticut.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  48.5°  F.,  with  the  following  monthly  normals 
(in  degrees  F.) :  January  24.8  ;  February  25.9;  March  32.7; 
April  46.2  ;  May  59.3  ;  June  68.6;  July  73.3  ;  August  70.4  ; 
September  62.8  ;  October  50.8;  November  38.7  ;  December  28.0. 
Precipitation  is  46.14  inches,  distributed  as  follows:  January 
3.44;  February  3.51  ;  March  3.70;  April  3.28;  May  4.17;  June 
3.87;  July  4. 6;  August  4.53  ;  September  3.60;  October  4.22; 
November  3.83;  December  3.53.  Mean  relative  humidity 
slightly  above  71  percent. 

Waterbury,  Connecticut,  presents  the  climate  of  the  southern 
terminus  of  the  interior  climate  and  possesses  almost  the  same 
climatologic  features  as  does  the  northern  part  of  Rhode 


2j8  CLIMATE. 

Island.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  48.6°  F.,  with  the  fol- 
lowing monthly  means  (in  degrees  F.) :  January  25.2  ;  Febru- 
ary 27.4;  March  32. 2;  April  46.3  ;  May  57.9  ;  June  67.4;  July 
72.0;  August  69.4;  September  62.7  ;  October  52.1  ;  November 
40.3  ;  December  29.0.  The  annual  precipitation  is  not  given,  but 
Middleton,  an  adjoining  town,  has  48.24  inches  rainfall  with  the 
following  monthly  means  :  January  4.22  ;  February  4.06 ;  March 
4.59  ;  April  3.22  ;  May  3.72  ;  June  3.62  ;  July  4.40 ;  August  4.95  ; 
September  3.72  ;  October  4.09 ;  November  3.94 ;  December 
3.82.  The  mean  annual  relative  humidity  is  not  given  for  the 
interior  stations,  but  is  probably  less  than  the  coast,  where  it 
but  slightly  exceeds  75  per  cent. 

One  of  the  benevolent  features  of  the  New  England  climate  is 
the  absence  of  rapid  and  extensive  changes  in  temperature  or 
humidity,  and  the  dry  areas  of  high  altitude  scattered  over  the 
interior.  These  features  have  made  the  region  the  haven  of 
summer  pleasure  seekers,  where  the  cool,  dry  mountain  and 
seashore  air  act  as  the  solace  ofsummer  rest.  The  mean  annual 
precipitation  for  New  England  is  45.32  inches,  distributed  by 
seasons  as  follows  :  Spring  I  i.io  inches  ;  summer  1 1.43  inches  ; 
autumn  11.44  inches;  winter  11.35  inches.  For  the  coast  zone 
the  mean  rainfall  is  much  higher  than  the  interior,  but  as  the 
increase  occurs  largely  in  the  spring  and  autumn  months,  it 
does  not  alter  the  summer  climate. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
SOIL. 

The  healthfulness  of  soil  is  dependent  upon  the  character  of 
the  materials  which  enter  into  its  composition,  upon  its  porosity, 
and  its  permeability  to  air  or  water,  or  both.  Soils  which  con- 
tain large  quantities  of  water,  or  soils  which  are  extremely 
compact,  retaining  the  surface  water,  form  one  group,  while  soils 
which  permit  rapid  percolation  of  surface  water,  that  are  porous 
to  a  high  degree,  and  which  yield  their  moisture  rapidly  on 
exposure  to  the  sun,  form  another  group. 

In  these  there  will  be  a  great  difference  in  the  amount  of 
moisture  present.  Water  in  the  soil  may  exist  as  vapor  or 
moisture,  or  beyond  a  certain  depth  the  entire  soil  stratum  will 
be  saturated  ;  in  the  former  instance  the  soil  porosity  is  occupied 
by  both  air  and  water,  in  the  latter  by  water  alone,  one  being 
known  as  the  stratum  of  saturation  and  the  other  as  the  stratum 
of  humidity. 

In  the  solid  clay  or  marlish  soil  the  stratum  of  saturation  will 
be  less  than  five  feet  below  the  surface,  while  in  the  dryer  sanely 
soils  the  saturated  area  will  vary  from  five  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  subsoil  water  will  depend  not  only 
on  the  character  of  the  soil  but  on  its  configuration.  Thus,  in 
mountainous,  hilly,  or  undulating  areas  it  will  be  found  that  the 
subsoil  water  lies  nearest  the  surface  at  the  lowest  altitude  and 
nearest  the  termination  of  the  shed  into  whatever  stream,  sea,  or 
watercourse  drainage  takes  place.  In  pervious,  moist  soils  near 
the  ocean  or  tide  water,  the  depth  of  the  ground  water  is  no 
doubt  influenced  by  the  tide  as  well  as  by  the  character  of  the 
soil. 

Season  materially  influences  the  amount  of  ground  moisture, 
both  as  aqueous  vapor  and  subsoil  water.  The  maximum  for 
a  given  soil  occurs  after  the  wet  season,  and  hence  there  are 
usually  two  periods  in  the  temperate  zones,  one  of  the  true 
maximum  being  in  the  spring,  and  for  the  remaining  months 

2/9 


28O  SOIL. 

another  rise  not  equal  to  the  spring  and  taking  place  early  in 
the  winter  months  or  late  in  the  fall.  The  minimum  of  moisture 
in  the  temperate  zones  usually  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  season,  and  this  makes,  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabited  globe,  the  termination  of  the  dry  season.  As  these 
observations  are  comparatively  constant,  in  order  to  determine 
the  mean  annual  soil  humidity  and  subsoil  saturation,  observa- 
tions must  be  made  for  the  varying  climatic  conditions.  These 
modifications  of  soil  moisture  also  mark  periods  of  greatest  soil 
pollution.  Thus  in  the  autumn  the  recently  deposited  organic 
matter  favors  the  growth  and  development  of  those  poisons 
engendered  by  heat  and  moisture  in  the  presence  of  decaying 
organic  matter.  Thus  it  is  noticeable  that  for  a  given  malarial 
locality  the  maximum  of  the  poison  is  reached  when  the  subsoil 
water  rises  in  the  autumn  and  is  lowest  during  the  midsummer 
months.  The  same  applies  to  typhoid  fever  and  other  infectious 
diseases,  largely  propagated  through  pollution  of  soil  and  water. 
As  cities  are  almost  exclusively  supplied  by  surface  water,  and 
as  surface  water  must  carryall  forms  of  soil  pollution,  it  is 
during  the  seasons  of  maximum  soil  pollution  that  the  most 
dangers  from  water  contamination  arises.  These  are  intensified, 
as  pointed  out  under  "  Water,"  by  the  flushing  rains,  which  carry 
en  masse  large  quantities  of  infectious  material  which  has  been 
developing  under  most  suitable  climatic  and  telluric  conditions. 
Vegetation  very  materially  modifies  the  amount  of  surface 
moisture,  area  of  humidity,  and  thus  indirectly,  at  times  directly, 
the  stratum  of  saturation;  the  amount  of  influence  exerted  will 
be  dependent  upon  the  character  and  density  of  the  vegetation. 
Dense  and  more  or  less  impermeable  forests  prevent  the  pene- 
tration of  solar  heat  and  the  escape  of  surface  moisture; 
properly  selected  trees  have  an  extraordinary  influence  upon 
the  removal  of  water  from  the  soil.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
eucalyptus  abstracts  from  the  soil  large  quantities  of  water,  which 
it  again  yields  by  its  leaves.  There  are  probably  more  trees  which 
act  in  a  similar  manner, though  to  a  lesser  degree;  the  silver  maple, 
the  silver  poplar,  and  the  willow  afford  fairly  good  examples  of 
this  group.  As  these  trees  grow  most  luxuriantly  in  moist  soils, 
it  will  be  found  that,  in  the  absence  of  other  evidence,  they  may 
be  taken  as  indications  of  a  high  degree  of  soil  humidity  or  a 


TELLUKIC    IMPURITIES.  2<Sl 

superficial  stratum  of  saturation  ;  notably  is  this  the  case  in  the 
sycamore  and  willow,  as  they  are  rarely  found  in  the  absence  of 
moisture,  while  the  poplar  and  the  oak  are  more  commonly 
associated  with  drier  soils.  Swamp  grass,  sickle  grass,  bulrush, 
ami  dock  afford  evidence  of  superficial  subsoil  water,  while 
mullen,  brier,  and  bluegrass  are  more  constantly  associated  with 
upland  or  drier  soils. 

Another  important  factor  in  soil  is  the  presence  or  absence  of 
vegetable  matter,  more  especially  in  the  varying  stages  of  de- 
'composition;  as  examples  of  this  we  have  the  soils  of  thickly 
wooded  districts,  covered  with  an  abundance  of  fallen  foliage, 
which,  decomposing,  and  at  the  same  time  retaining  large 
quantities  of  moisture,  affords  an  active  agent  in  air  and  soil  pol- 
lution. The  decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  compounds 
as  going  on  in  the  soil  is  brought  about  by  the  action  of  several 
forms  of  microorganisms.  Most  of  these  are  innocuous,  belong- 
ing to  the  saprophytic  group  of  bacteria.  Their  function  in  the 
soil  consists  in  splitting  up  the  organic  compounds  into  carbon 
dioxid  and  water  and  possibly,  under  certain  conditions,  into 
various  ethyl  compounds,  recognized  as  marsh  gas.  \Yhile,  as 
has  already  been  said,  the  majority  of  these  organisms  are 
saprophytes  or  non-pathogenic  organisms,  there  are  several 
pathogenic  organisms  which  have  their  natural  habitat  in  the 
soil,  and  others  which  incidentally  may  be  therein  stored. 
Among  the  pathogenic  organisms  almost  constantly  found  in 
the  soil,  are  tetanus,  malignant  edema,  and  man}'  of  the  organ- 
isms associated  with  suppuration, and  while  the  bacterial  cause 
of  malaria  is  still  undecided,  there  remains  no  doubt  that  the 
etiolocncal  factor,  whatever  it  mav  be,  resides  largelv  in  soil, 

O  J  O          - 

more  particularly  in  that  having  a  superficial  subsoil  saturation 
area  and  associated  with  a  heat  and  decaying  vegetation  at  a 
low  altitude.  The  pathogenic  organisms  which  are  incidentally 
deposited  in  the  soil,  and  which  possess  the  faculty  of  residing 
there  through  a  more  or  less  indefinite  period,  depend  largely 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  temperature.  Cholera, 
typhoid  fever,  erysipelas,  and  anthrax  (including  the  so-called 
anthracoid  diseases  of  animals)  form  the  most  important  mem- 
bers of  the  group.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  tuber- 
culosis and  many  if  not  all  contagious  and  infectious  diseases 
iS 


282  SOIL. 

may  have  a  more  or  less  temporary  residence  in  the  soil.  In 
order  that  pathogenic  or  saprophytic  microorganisms  should 
have  anything  more  than  a  temporary  existence  in  soil,  it  is 
necessary  that  heat,  moisture,  and  the  essential  elements  for  their 
nutrition  should  be  present.  These  conditions  are  all  found 
where  there  is  decaying  vegetable  matter  ;  superficial  subsoil 
and  a  warm  climate  affording  a  temperature  anywhere  above  80°, 
preferably  between  95  and  100°  F,  favor  their  development.  From 
the  gases  present  in  soil  is  estimated  the  amount  of  vegetable  or 
animal  matter  undergoing  decomposition.  In  the  former  the  ex- 
cess of  carbon  dioxid  will  be  apparent,  and  in  the  latter  ammonia 
or  its  compounds.  Tests  for  ammonia  in  the  soil  are  not  deemed 
reliable  by  reason  of  the  ammoniacal  salts  normally  present,  but 
carbon  dioxid  in  excess  may  be  considered  as  conclusive  evidence 
that  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  is  going  on.  The  amount 
of  carbon  dioxid  which  maybe  considered  normal  will  vary  with 
the  season  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  In  the  most  healthful 
soils  there  will  be  between  five  and  ten  volumes  per  thousand  in 
summer,  and  about  one-fourth  of  the  same  in  winter,  while  in 
made  soils  the  volume  may  reach  107.5  Per  thousand  (Fodor). 
These  observations  are  made  at  depths  of  eight  to  ten  feet. 

Soil  air,  either  dry  or  humid,  to  an  enormous  degree,  may 
gain  ingress  to  houses  through  the  differences  of  temperature 
between  the  air  in  the  house  and  the  external  air.  The  ingress 
usual!}'  occurs  when  the  air  outside  is  cool  and  the  inside  air 
heated.  By  atmospheric  pressure  the  telluric  vapor  is  forced 
i:ito  the  house,  through  improperly  cemented  cellars,  to  take  the 
place  of  the  rising  rarefied  air  within  the  habitation.  If,  therefore, 
the  habitation  be  built  upon  made  ground  the  soil  air  will  carry 
into  the  house  many  of  the  noxious  products  of  subsoil  decom- 
position. These  are  to  be  guarded  against  by  properly  con- 
structed walls  with  thoroughly  cemented  and  ventilated  wall 
spaces,  as  described  under  "  Habitations." 

Purification  of  Soils. 

Snhsoi/  Dmimigc.  Where  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove 
superficial  subsoil  water,  it  can  be  accomplished  best  by  methods 
of  what  arc  known  as  subsoil  drainage,  the  efficiency  of  which  will 
depend  upon  the  method,  character  of  the  soil,  and  the  amount 


PURIFICATION    BY   SUBSOIL    DRAINAGE. 


of  fall  attainable.  Sandy,  permeable  soils  can  be  more  readily 
drained  than  clay  and  denser  soils,  the  latter  requiring  numerous 
drains,  closely  approximated  with  abundant  fall  and  large  perco- 
lation surface.  The  best  subsoil  drains  are  those  made  of  broken 
limestone  or  unglaxed  crockery-ware  tiles,  with  the  best  results 
obtained  from  a  combination  of  the  two,  as  shown  by  the  accom- 
panying illustration. 

Subsoil  drainage  should  never  be  connected  with  the  sewage 
system,  as  in  case  of  clogging  of  the  latter  the  subsoil  will  re- 
ceive the  dammed  up  sewage  matter,  thus  establishing  a  process 
of  upward  filtration  and  further  pollution  of  the  soil  which  it  is 
desired  to  purify. 

Where  the  excess  of  water  is  due  to  influx  of  water  from  an 
adjacent  stream  or  water-course  or  to  daily  tidal  rise,  as  along  the 
seacoasts,  dykes  with  trapped  or  gated  outlets  will  be  needed. 

FIG.  83. 


DRAIN  AND  SUBSOIL  PIPE  LAID  UPON  CRUSHED 
DROOKS  DRAIN  AND  SUBSOIL  PIPE.  STONES 

The  base  sheet  or  bed  is  made  of  unglazed  crock-  A  combination  at  once  cheap  and  most  useful, 
ery  ware  and  may  be  perforated.  The  drain  Tlie  stone  makes  a  very  solid  bed  for  the  drain 
proper  is  made  of  terra  cott.i.  and  favors  the  removal  of  surface  water. 

These  are  particularly  useful  in  draining  lowlands  where  tidal 
overflow  occurs.  The  entire  area  to  be  drained  is  ditched  and 
subsoil  drains  located  with  small  areas  between,  the  entire  sys- 
tem conducted  to  the  lowest  point,  and  there  discharged  through 
a  gated  conduit,  which  is  opened  when  the  tide  falls  below 
its  outlet,  thus  permitting  the  periodic  outflow  of  accumulated 
surface  or  soil  water,  and  closed  when  the  tide  rises.  These 
gated  outlets  are  now  made  automatic  and  require  but  little 
supervision.  Where  this  plan  cannot  be  resorted  to  the  subsoil 
and  surface  water  may  be  conducted  to  a  suitable  spot  and  there 
pumped  out  of  the  dyked  area.  This  method  is  both  expensive 
and  unsatisfactory,  as  it  is  rare  that  sufficient  storage  or  fall  can 
be  obtained. 

If  subsoil  drainage  be  aided  bv  cultivation  better  results  will 


284  SOIL. 

be  obtained.  The  frequent  stirring  and  handling  of  the  soil  will 
at  first  intensify  the  pollution  by  increasing  the  amount  of  or- 
ganic matter  brought  to  the  surface;  later  this  will  nitrify  and 
disappear,  the  sandy  portion  of  the  soil,  rising  to  the  surface, 
will  favor  evaporation  and  thus  indirectly  favor  the  desired  result. 
In  urban  localities,  where  houses  are  thick,  these  marshy  areas 
are  filled  in  and  the  resulting  elevation  is  known  as  made  soil. 
Properly  the  filling  in  should  be  first  a  layer  of  two  or  more  feet 
of  cobble-stone  or  good-sized  rock,  on  top  this  may  or  may  not 
receive  a  good  layer  of  ashes,  but  lastly  it  is  covered  over  by 
earth  from  superficial  crust-layers  on  more  elevated  sites,  prefer- 
ably from  the  natural  stratum  the  elevation  of  which  it  is  desired 
to  reach  ;  if  these  directions  are  followed  a  desirable  and  health- 
ful surface  may  be  produced.  Not  infrequently  the  filling  is 
done  with  street  and  house  refuse,  including  discarded  clothing, 
old  shoes,  bones,  and  other  organic  matter.  This,  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  moisture,  offers  every  opportunity  for  the  devel- 
opment of  all  the  dangers  which  soil  pollution  can  induce.  Not 
only  is  this  process  of  making  elevation  unsanitary,  but  it  is  by 
far  the  most  expensive.  Loaded  with  organic  matter,  only  partly 
exposed  to  the  natural  conditions  for  decay,  the  process  is  long, 
lasting  for  years,  during  which  time  all  sewers,  water-pipes,  gas 
mains  (city  property),  or  dwellings  (private  property),  if  placed 
in  or  upon  such  soil,  settle  and  become  the  source  of  intermin- 
able outlay.  This  is  particularly  worse  if  the  bed  upon  which 
the  elevation  rests  is  boggy  or  made  of  sinking-  or  quick-sand. 
In  such  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  drive  piling  through  the 
uncertain  bed  and  secure  a  resting  place  upon  which  the  eleva- 
tion can  be  constructed.  These  piles  are  driven  closely  together 
and  a  stone  foundation  formed  upon  the  ends  of  the  driven  piles. 
In  extremely  uncertain  bogs  it  may  be  necessary  to  concrete 
the  bed  before  the  stone  is  placed  upon  its  surface,  filling  in  the 
superimposed  layers  as  already  directed.  These  seem  like  ex- 
pensive methods,  but  in  the  end  the}'  are  the  cheapest.* 

*  In  1'liiladelpliia,  Fourth  Street,  near  Christian  Stieet,  runs  over  a  bo^,  once  occu- 
pied by  a  '  reek.  The  present  elevation  w;is  secured  liytlie  ordinary  filling  in  method 
now  commonly  pursued  by  cities  Within  the  la-t  year  it  has  been  torn  up  no  less 
than  eight  limes  fur  the  repairs  of  sewers,  broken  water  pipes,  and  gas  mains,  and  the 
pies-nt  year  has  been  but  little  worse  than  the  years  which  have  preceded  it.  As  an 


DISEASES    DUE    TO    TELLURIC    IMPURITIES.  285 

Aside  from  suitable  drainage,  both  surface  and  subsoil,  the 
judicious  cultivation  of  vegetation,  planting  of  trees,  not  in  ex- 
cess, form  important  adjuncts.  The  value  of  the  eucalyptus  is 
here  well  established  in  climates  where  its  growth  is  possible, 
and  fortunately  this  growth  is  most  luxuriant  where  most  needed, 
namely,  in  damp  and  swampy  malarial  areas. 

Diseases  Due  to  Impurities  in  the  Soil.  Diseases  propa- 
gated by  the  soil  partake  largely  of  the  same  characteristics  as 
diseases  spread  by  water;  thus  we  have  all  the  specific  infectious 
diseases,  microbic  in  point  of  origin,  as  possibly  attributable  to 
telluric  pollution.  It  is  possible,  indeed  probable,  that  soil  con- 
taining decayed  vegetable  or  animal  matter  may  give  rise  to 
specific  diseases  from  the  lodgment  of  microorganisms,  such  as 
tetanus,  malignant  edema,  typhoid  fever,  erysipelas,  cholera, 
etc.,  in  man,  and  in  animals  anthrax  and  anthracoid  diseases. 
The  almost  indefinitely  prolonged  period  which  the  soil  may 
retain  the  specific  properties  of  the  organism  renders  these  views 
more  probable.  Malaria  partakes  more  or  less  intimately  of 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  bacterial  diseases,  and  affords 
us  a  type  of  the  diseases  due  to  specific  organisms ;  reasoning 
backward  from  the  knowledge  which  we  already  possess  of  sim- 
ilar diseases,  it  seems  not  improbable  that  the  cause  which  gives 
rise  to  malaria,  as  engendered  by  heat  and  moisture  in  the  pres- 
ence of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  presents  a  type  closely  allied 
to,  if  not  identical  with,  what  may  be  considered  the  bacterial 
diseases.  Viewed  in  the  reverse,  evidence  is  not  wanting  of  the 
intimate  relation  between  bacterial  diseases  and  chronic  paludism. 
Thus  the  bacteriologist  would  recommend  for  the  sanitary  im- 
provement of  soil  containing  decomposing  organic  matter  in 
the  presence  of  heat  and  moisture,  that  every  effort  be  made  to 

example  of  the  reverse  policy,  a  large  sugar  refinery  in  the  same  city  has  been  con- 
structed over  a  veritable  bos;.  Piles  were  driven,  the  surface  concreted,  and  a  retmery 
constructed  on  this  behind  a  specially  constructed  dyke  or  bulkhead  to  keep  out  tide- 
water during  the  process  ;  as  a  result,  there  stands  to-day  n  ten-story  building  of  gigantic 
dimensions,  loaded  with  the  heaviest  machinery,  raw  and  refined  product,  without 
the  slightest  evidence  of  sinking  and  with  subways  and  cellars  in  the  best  possible 
condition,  although  sixty  thousand  cubic  feet  of  cellar  is  beneath  the  level  of  ordi- 
nary  high  tide.  The  city  of  New  York  affords  innumerable  examples  of  just  such 
work.  It  is  done  by  private  individuals  to  prevent  future  outlay,  not  by  corporation 
jobbers  to  secure  continuous  steals. 


286  SOIL. 

remove  or  at  least  reduce  the  moisture,  improve  the  drainage, 
and  alter  the  vegetation  ;  this  has  been  found  experimentally  to 
have  diminished  the  quantity  of  malaria  and  the  intensity  of 
the  poison. 

Another  class  of  diseases  to  which  soil  seems  to  bear  a  cer- 
tain definite  relation  are  the  diseases  of  the  mucous  membranes. 
The  delicate  and  extensive  circulation  of  the  mucous  membranes 
seems  to  be  most  sensitive  in  its  reaction,  and  toxic  elements 
present  in  the  atmosphere  or  soil  seem  to  be  important  factors 
in  the  propagation  of  diseases  affecting  the  respiratory  and  ali- 
mentary mucous  tracts.  As  long  ago  as  nearly  half  a  century, 
Bowditch,  of  Boston,  called  attention  to  the  intimate  association 
between  moist  soil  and  consumption,  and  while  there  have  been 
no  extensive  observations  bearing  upon  this  subject,  any  evi- 
dence of  the  incorrectness  of  his  conclusions  has  been  entirely 
wanting.  Dr.  Bowditch's  statements  were  formulated  long 

o  o 

before  the  bacterial  origin  of  tuberculosis  was  established  ;  now 
one  can  see  clearly  reasons  for  believing  that  his  observations 
would  theoretically  be  well  taken,  even  in  the  absence  of  statis- 
tical evidence  to  sustain  them.  Consumption  is  a  disease  which 
above  all  others  has,  as  its  principal  cause,  irritation  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  without  which  the  disease  rarely  occurs,  certainly 
not  in  either  the  pulmonary  or  intestinal  form.  This  irritation 
affords  a  nidus,  in  which  the  active  etiologic  factor,  the  bacillus, 
gains  ingress.  In  moist  soil  we  have  all  the  elements  necessary 
for  the  propagation  of  this  organism.  The  bacillus  itself  no 
doubt  develops  with  avidity,  and  the  disturbance  of  the  mucous 
membranes  favors  the  infection  of  the  human  organism. 

With  so  clear  an  example  as  consumption,  the  influence  of 
telluric  impurities  in  the  propagation  of  dysentery,  diarrhea, 
and  chronic  catarrhs,  nasal,  bronchial,  or  intestinal,  and  other 
morbid  processes  of  the  same  general  character,  can  be  attrib- 
uted, either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  perverted  functional  activity 
of  the  mucous  tracts,  engendered  by  polluted  soil,  air,  and  water, 
as  observed  in  malarial  districts  and  elsewhere,  where  the 
stratum  of  soil  saturation  is  superficial  and  the  stratum  of 
humidity  abnormally  moist. 

Soil  Examination.  In  the  examination  of  soil,  the  most 
practical  thing  for  the  sanitari.m  to  detciminc  is  the  power  of 


CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION.  287 

the  soil  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture.  This  it  is  impos- 
sible to  do  from  small  samples  sent  to  the  laboratory,  but  must 
be  done  by  making  a  critical  examination  of  the  soil  /;/  situ, 
taking  into  consideration  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  land,  the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water,  and  the 
meteorologic  conditions,  etc.  As  soil  varies  considerably  within 
small  areas,  a  number  of  samples  must  be  collected  before  one  can 
with  any  certainty  determine  its  quality.  Samples  may  be 
obtained  from  any  depth  by  means  of  borers.  Borers  consist 
essentially  of  pieces  of  iron  tubing  (boring  rods)  varying  in  dia- 
meter from  one-half  inch  to  two  inches  or  more.  At  one  end  of 
the  tubing  is  an  opening,  and  from  the  back  of  the  opening,  and 
inclining  forward,  is  a  piece  of  steel.  To  the  lower  end  of  the  tub- 
ing is  attached  a  spiral  bit,  and  at  the  other  end  a  cross  bar  or 
means  for  connecting  with  a  boring  machine. 

As  the  bit  penetrates  the  earth,  soil  is  gathered  and  forced 
by  the  steel  into  the  hollow  of  the  boring  rod.  A  borer  bearing 
the  name  of  Framkel  is  one  that  is  often  recommended. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Soil.  The  procedure  outlined  by 
Schulze  is  the  best  for  determining  the  chemical  constituents 
of  soil.  Pieces  of  rock  and  large  stones  are  first  removed  from 
the  samples,  the  earth  is  dried  in  the  air  and  then  placed,  with- 
out crushing  or  pulverizing,  in  a  glass  funnel  lined  with  strong 
filter  paper.  Pure  distilled  water  is  poured  into  the  funnel 
until  the  soil  is  covered.  If  the  first  of  the  filtrate  is  turbid, 
return  again  to  funnel.  The  process  of  extraction  is  continued 
until  two  or  three  times  the  weight  of  the  soil  is  represented  by 
the  weight  of  the  filtrate.  The  several  filtrates  are  incorporated, 
and  then  divided  into  a  larger  and  a  smaller  portion.  A  part 
of  the  washed  soil  is  retained  for  further  treatment.  The  larger 
portion  of  the  filtrate  is  evaporated  in  a  porcelain  dish  over  a 
water  bath  to  one-fourth  its  bulk.  A  small  quantity  of  the  con- 
centrated solution  is  tested  by  the  methods  described  under 
"Water"  for  organic  matter  and  chlorin,  and  the  remainder  evap- 
orated over  a  water  bath  to  dryness  ;  it  is  then  ignited,  that  the 
organic  matter  may  be  thoroughly  burnt  off.  The  ash  is  tested 

o  .  tj         * 

for  manganese  by  fusing  upon  platinum  foil  a  small  portion  of 
the  ash  with  two  or  three  parts  of  sodium  carbonate  ;  if  man- 
ganese be  present  sodium  manganate  is  formed,  which  appears 


288  SOIL. 

\vliilc  hot  a  transparent  green,  but  when  cold  a  bluish  green. 
What  remains  of  the  ash  is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
the  appearance  of  any  effervescent  indicates  carbonic  acid.  This 
is  again  evaporated  to  dryness,  moistened  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  water  added,  the  mixture  warmed,  and  filtered.  The  filtrate 
is  tested  for  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  iron,  magnesia, 
potassa,  soda,  and  lithia.  Carbon,  clay,  and  silicic  acid  are, 
generally,  the  chief  constituents  of  the  residue.  To  detect  the 
silicic  acid,  the  residue  is  washed,  boiled  with  caustic  soda, 
filtered,  saturated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  evaporated  to  dryness, 
and  water  added,  when  all  the  constituents  except  the  silicic 
acid  will  be  dissolved. 

The  smaller  portion  of  the  original  aqueous  solution  is  now 
tested  for  ammonia,  nitric  and  nitrous  acid. 

The  water-washed  soil,  which  represents  about  90  per  cent, 
of  the  whole,  is  now  tested  as  follows:  50  grams  of  the  soil, 
to  which  a  small  quantity  of  40  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid  and 
100  c.c.  of  water  are  added,  are  heated  over  a  water  bath  for 
several  hours  and  then  filtered.  The  filtrate,  containing  those 
constituents  which  are  soluble  in  an  acid  medium,  is  tested  for 
iron,  manganese,  copper,  alumina,  lime,  fluorin,  magnesia,  lithia, 
soda,  potassa,  and  carbonic,  silicic,  phosphoric,  sulphuric,  and 
arsenic  acids. 

The  presence  of  peaty  acids  is  determined  thus :  A  sample 
of  soil  is  dried  and.  to  separate  straw,  roots,  and  stones,  is  sifted. 
The  soil  which  passes  through  the  sieve  is  digested  with  sodium 
carbonate  at  a  temperature  of  from  80°  F.  to  90°  F.  for  several 
hours.  It  is  then  filtered  and  the  filtrate  acidified  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  when,  if  the  peat}'  acids  be  present,  they  will  appear 
as  brown  flakes.  Separate  the  flakes,  place  them  in  a  weighed 
filter,  and  wash  until  the  water  shows  color,  then  dry  and  weigh. 
Ignite  the  dry  mass,  deduct  the  weight  of  ash,  and  what  remains 
represents  "  acids  of  humus,"  or  ulmic,  humic,  and  geic  acids. 

H'ti/iT  in  S/>i/.  The  water  in  the  soil  may  be  considered 
under  two  heads:  first,  that  held  by  the  ground-air  and  known 
a^  moisture;  second,  that  forming  a  large  sheet  immediately 
above  the  impermeable  strata  and  known  as  ground  water.  The 
amount  of  moisture  depends  mainly  upon  the  temperature, 
the  character  of  the  subsoil,  the  rainfall,  the  amount  of  water 


TELLURIC    WATF.K    AN'I)    IIKAT.  289 

in  the  underlying  ground.  Take  a  known  weight  of  the  soil 
and  dry  it  at  a  temperature  of  220°  F.  When  perfectly  dry, 
again  weigh  it,  and  the  loss  in  weight  is  equivalent  to  the 
amount  of  moisture  that  was  present.  Many  samples  from 
different  areas  of  the  district  under  investigation  and  also 
from  varying  depths  must  be  examined  before  anywhere  near 
an  accurate  estimation  of  the  moisture  of  the  soil  can  be 
obtained.  If  the  examination  cannot  be  conducted  upon,  or 
very  near,  the  ground  under  investigation,  the  soil  should  be 
collected  in  glass  flasks  and  the  flasks  stopped  with  soft  rubber 
stoppers  and  hermetically  sealed  with  wax  for  transportation, 
in  order  to  prevent  drying  en  route. 

The  height  of  the  level  of  the  ground  water,  or  area  of 
saturation,  varies  greatly  with  the  season,  but  can  readily  be 
determined  by  boring  holes  in  various  parts  of  the  ground 
and  noting  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises. 

A  clue  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  ground  of  a  dis- 
trict may  be  had  from  the  character  of  the  vegetation  growing 
thereon,  and  from  a  practical  point  of  view  affords  a  better 
criterion  as  to  the  agricultural  value  of  a  soil  than  any  conclu- 
sion that  can  be  deduced  from  laboratory  tests  for  determining 
the  amount  of  moisture. 

The  character  of  the  vegetation  growing  upon  wet  and  dry 
lands  has  been  adduced  in  the  foregoing  portion  of  this  chapter. 

As  soils  differ  widely  in  their  constituents,  it  is  but  natural 
that  they  differ  in  the  amount  of  water  which  they  are  capable  of 
taking  up  and  retaining;  thus,  for  example,  loose  sand  may 
retain  about  two  gallons  per  cubic  foot,  the  ordinary  sand- 
stone one  gallon  per  cubic  foot,  while  clay  sand  absorbs  20  per 
cent.,  chalk  13  to  17  per  cent.,  and  humus  from  40  to  60  per  cent. 

The  hygrometric  properties  of  a  soil  may  be  determined  by 
rendering  the  soil  absolutely  dry,  and  then  placing  it  in  a  bell 
jar  over  water.  After  several  hours  again  weigh,  and  the  excess 
in  weight  indicates  the  amount  of  water  that  it  has  absorbed. 

Heat  in  Soil.  Schubler  has  made  a  number  of  extended 
observations  regarding  the  heat-absorbing  and  retaining  pro- 
perties of  the  soil,  and  he  classifies  them  in  the  following 
order:  1st,  sand;  2d,  light  clay  ;  3d,  gypsum;  4th,  heavy  clay  ; 
5th,  clayey  earth  ;  6th  pure  clay;  /th,  fine  chalk  ;  8th,  humus. 


290 


SOIL. 


FIG.  84. 


HESSE'S  ArpAKATfs  FOR  COLLECTING  GKOUNU  AIR. 


The  temperature  of  the  soil,  undoubtedly,  greatly  influences 
the  rapidity  with  which  organic  matter  is  decomposed,  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  the  character  of  the  ground 
air,  and  the  life  of  microorganisms. 

Ground  Air.  Fig.  84  illustrates  Hesse's  apparatus  for  collect- 
ing ground  air.  To  collect  the  air,  clamp  the  rubber  tubing  con- 
necting the  steel  tube  with 
the  receiver,  exhaust  the 
containing  flask,  and  then 
remove  the  clamp.  The 
first  sample  collected 
should  be  rejected  and  a 
second  sample  collected. 
When  the  receiver  is  filled, 
secure  the  air  by  clamp- 
ing the  rubber  tubing  at- 
tached to  the  glass  tubes  of 
the  receiver.  The  ground 
air  is  analyzed  in  the  same 
manner  as  atmospheric  air. 

Especial  care  should  be  taken  in  estimating  the  amount  of 
carbon  dioxid  and  organic  matter,  as  they  are  the  most  important 
constituents. 

When  large  volumes  of  ground  air  have  escaped  into  the 
basement  of  a  dwelling,  it  may  be  detected  by  estimating  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid,  as  any  considerable  excess  of  this 
gas  not  otherwise  to  be  accounted  for  is  to  be  attributed  to  this 
source. 

The  period  of  the  maximum  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  in 
ground  air  is  between  the  months  of  July  and  November. 

Biologic  Examination  of  Soil.  The  bacteriologic  analysis 
of  soil  cannot  be  underestimated,  and  the  conlcusion  that  may 
be  deduced  from  a  carefully  conducted  study  of  the  bacteria  is 
from  a  sanitary  standpoint  of  vastly  more  importance  than 
a  chemical  analysis.  The  microorganisms  living  in  the  surface 
soil  are,  almost  without  exception,  saprophytes.  As  the  patho- 
genic organisms  arc  destroyed  by  the  saprophytes,  they  are 
found  generally  in  the  lower  strata,  where  the  saprophytes  do 
not  seem  to  penetrate.  The  length  of  time  pathogenic  organ- 


BIOLOGIC    ANALYSIS.  2C}\ 

isms  can  remain  in  the  soil  without  losing  their  vitality  has  not 
been  determined,  and,  as  Pasteur  has  cultivated  from  the  soil 
the  bacillus  anthracis  thirteen  years  after  the  body  of  an  animal 
which  died  of  charbon  had  been  buried,  it  would  seem  impos- 
sible to  fix  a  time  limit.  The  most  important  of  the  pathogenic 
organisms  to  be  found  in  the  soil  are  those  of  tetanus,  malig- 
nant edema,  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria, 
anthrax,  and  anthracoid  diseases. 

The  part  played  by  earthworms  in  regard  to  pathogenic  or- 
ganisms is  interesting.  It  seems  worms  ingest  the  organisms 
in  the  lower  strata  and  carry  them  to  the  surface,  as  pathogenic 
organisms  have  been  detected  in  worms  and  in  the  surface  soil, 
where  their  presence  could  only  be  accounted  for  on  the  hy- 
pothesis that  the  worms  had  carried  them  from  the  lower  strata 
to  the  surface  ground  and  there  deposited  them. 

The  various  methods  detailed  under  the  "  Examination  of 
Water"  are  the  ones  principally  used  in  making  a  biologic 
analysis  of  soil. 

The  soil  is  collected  in  sterile  test-tubes  or  flasks  having 
cotton  plugs.  For  collecting  dirt  at  some  depth,  Muencke,  of 
Berlin,  manufactures  an  apparatus  especially  devised  for  the  pur- 
pose. Soil  must  be  investigated  immediately  or  we  have,  as  in 
water,  a  rapid  multiplication  of  the  organisms.  Koch  in  his  first 
investigation  of  soil  adopted  a  method  which,  though  crude, 
was  exceedingly  simple,  and,  without  effecting  isolation  of  the 
bacteria,  one  could  obtain  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  the  organisms  in  the  sample.  The  dirt  is  collected  in 
an  ordinary  sterile  tube  or  flask.  To  inoculate  the  plate,  remove 
the  cotton  plug  and  close  the  mouth  of  the  tube  by  fastening 
over  it  a  piece  of  filter  paper;  puncture  in  several  places  with  a 
flamed  pin  and  sprinkle  the  dirt  lightly  over  the  surface  of  a 
gelatin  plate.  Fraenkel  advises  that  the  dirt  be  placed  in  a  tube 
of  liquefied  agar-agar  or  gelatin  and  agitated  thoroughly,  that 
the  bacteria  may  be  equally  dispersed  through  the  media.  The 
same  writer  also  prefers  to  measure  the  sample  rather  than 
weigh  it,  and  he  employed  for  the  purpose  a  spoon,  the  bowl  ot 
which  has  sharp  edges  and  holds  about  J,r  c.c.  Samples  of  dirt 
may  be  placed  in  sterile  water  or  bouillon  and  the  latter  treated 
as  described  under  "  Water." 


CHAPTER  IX. 
HABITATIONS.* 

Selecting  the  Ground  or  Site.  This  should  be  made  with 
great  discrimination  and  due  regard  to  its  suitability,  from  the 
standpoint  of  health.  The  highest  considerations  in  selecting  a 
site  are  those  controlled  by  judgment  and  common  sense,  to  wit: 
Dry  soil,  warmth,  light,  air,  and  environment.  The  latter  creates 
the  law  of  all  that  controls  hygienic  values,  while  warmth  and 
dryness  are  synonymous  ;  therefore,  avoid  the  presence  of  all 
objectionable  marshes  or  undrained  lands  in  the  immediate  vici- 
nity of  the  proposed  site. 

Dry  Soil.  Upon  the  dryness  of  the  site  depends  absolutely 
the  facility  afforded  for  rain  to  pass  off  or  through  the  soil.  A 
gravelly  soil  of  good  depth  and  on  a  slope  is  the  best  site,  since 
it  affords  natural  drainage,  and  by  reason  of  its  depth  the  subsoil 
water  is  not  likely  to  be  superficial.  Do  not,  however,  be  led  away 
by  the  error  that  because  the  surface  is  of  sand  or  gravel  this 
is  sufficient.  There  may  be  near  the  surface  a  stratum  of  clay 
or  impervious  stone,  and  this  being  impervious  the  upper  crust 
will  of  necessity  retain  the  water  which  should  otherwise  drain 
through  and  render  it  dry.  Such  a  site  is  unfavorable,  although 
much  might  be  done  to  improve  it  by  making  subsoil  drainage. 
(See  "  Purification  of  Soils.")  Chalk  soil  is  dry  and  healthy,  as  is 
also  sandstone,  provided  (for  the  reason  given  above)  it  is  of  con- 
siderable depth  and  without  a  substratum  of  impermeable  clay. 
Rock  affords  easy  facility  for  drainage  and  is  healthy,  but  here 
an  obstacle  presents  itself,  since  the  question  of  obtaining  water 
in  suburban  and  country  residences  is  one  of  pressing  import- 
ance. Clay,  marl,  peat  lands,  and  made  soil  should  be  shunned 


*  In  ilie  preparation  of  this  chapter  Mr.  YV.  1'.  Lockington,  architect,  has  written 
and  supervised  nil  that  portion  of  the  text  which  had  practical  hearing  upon  in.iteiials 
and  construction,  and  all  problems  bearing  upon  heating,  lighting,  ventilation,  and 
plumbing  have  been  submitted  for  his  approval.  Illustrations  by  Mr.  Lockinglon 
ate  acknowledged  in  the  list  of  illustrations. 

292 


SELECTION    OF    SITE.  293 

as  dangerous  and  unhealthy,  since  the  former  is  always  damp, 
and  favors  the  development  of  rheumatism,  neuralgia,  and  pul- 
monary diseases  ;  while  the  made  lands,  on  account  of  the  or- 
ganic matter  contained,  increases  year  by  year  in  its  stage  of 
putrefaction,  until  the  air  becomes  impure,  and  affords  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  breaking  out  of  xymotic  or  infectious  diseases. 
Diphtheria  and  allied  diseases  are  favored  by  these  agents,  and 
especially  so  during  the  fall  of  the  year,  owing  to  the  presence 
of  decaying  vegetation  ;  the  latter  also  affords  an  ample  nidus 
for  the  lodgment  of  malaria. 

The  poivcr  of  absorbing  heal  differs  in  different  soils,  according 
to  Schubler,  who  has  estimated  it  as  follows,  assuming  100  as 
the  standard  : — 

Sand,  with  some  lime,  .  100.0  Clayey  earth, 66.4 

Pure  sand,    ......     95.6  1'ure  clay, 66.7 

Liyht  clay, 76.9  Fine  chalk, 61.8 

Gypsum, 72.2  Humus, 49-° 

Heavy  clay, 71.1 

These  are  the  essential  elements  of  a  proof,  and  it  therefore 
follows  that  the  preference  should  be  given  as  directed,  paying 
attention  to  and  encouraging  the  question  of  natural  drainage, 
bearing  in  mind  also  that  your  house  should  not  be  too  closely 
surrounded  by  trees,  while  the  absence  of  vegetation  is  equally 
objectionable. 

The  question  of  site  is  often  decided  without  the  advice  of  the 
sanitarian  or  architect  and  its  objectionable  features  are  then  to 
be  overcome  by  (i)  improving  the  environment  and  physical 
objectionableness  and  (2)  by  creating  the  best  barriers  in  the 
materials  and  construction  of  the  habitation.  Deficient  vegeta- 
tion is  to  be  overcome  bv  favoring  its  growth,  and  excess  or 

J  O  o 

overproduction  by  removal  or  pruning.  Superficial  subsoil 
moisture  should  be  removed  by  drainage,  both  surface  and  sub- 
soil, and  extra  precautions  taken  against  damp  walls  or  cellars. 

Objectionable  and  unsanitary  industrial  pursuits  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  are  best  overcome  by  municipal  processes. 

In  selecting  a  site,  the  facilities  for  procuring  good  water  and 
fuel  are  important. 


*  See  report   by  Dr.  Uullard,  published  in  1889  as  a  supplement  to   the  Report  for 
1887  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Local   Government  Board. 


294 


HABITATIONS. 


Materials  for  Construction.  Next  to  the  selection  of  the 
site  are  to  be  considered  the  materials  to  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction ;  ii.<ood,  brick,  stone,  marble,  granite,  iron,  steel,  and,  of 
late,  aluminium;  glass,  slate,  cement,  aspJialtitm,  concrete,  lead,  cop- 
per, and  other  metals  having  special  uses. 

Wood.  Frame  and  other  forms  of  wooden  buildings  are 
rapidly  becoming  obsolete,  due  in  part  to  their  inflammability, 
to  their  want  of  resistance  to  the  elements  and  to  natural  wear 
from  use.  The  advantage  of  cheapness  is  no  longer  well  taken, 
and  when  considered  in  respect  to  time  appears  adversely.  Old 
wooden  buildings  are  but  forms  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  in 
the  large  majority  of  cases,  and  offer  the  best  lodging  for  all 
forms  of  vermin  and  infectious  parasites.  Where  wood  is  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  other  materials,  the  hard  woods,  such 
as  walnut,  cherry,  mahogany,  maple,  ash,  and  oak  offer  distinct 
advantages  over  poplar,  pine,  and  softer  woods,  except  in  the 
most  protected  situations,  where  the  cheapness  of  the  latter  out- 
weighs other  considerations. 

Bricks  are  strong,  durable  in  all  cases,  and  can  be  made  to  lend 
a  picturesque  individuality  as  well  as  stone.  In  making  a  selec- 
tion for  outer  work,  facing  or  ornamental  dressing  or  trimming, 
choose  a  hard  stock  brick  of  good,  uniform  color  and  quality — 
naturally,  they  will  be  found  to  be  more  expensive — but  for  back- 
ing purposes,  common  red  brick  may  be  used.  Bricks  ordi- 
narily are  of  a  uniform  size,  8^  inches  in  length  by  <\.l/2 
inches  in  width  and  2}/>  inches  in  thickness,  varying  some- 
times half  an  inch  in  length.  They  should  be  laid  wet  in  dry 
weather,  although  this  is  not  always  done,  and  when  laid  in 
damp  or  free/ing  weather  the  brick  should  be  laid  thoroughly 
dry.  Nothing  can  resist  fire  better  than  good,  sound  brick  made 
from  thoroughly  tempered  clay,  and  such  bricks  when  thor- 
oughly and  well  bedded  will  resist  a  pressure  of  6000  to  8000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Solid  bricks  should  have  been 
proved  by  standing  in  a  kiln  four  or  five  days  and  subjected  to 
a  heat  from  2000°  F.  to  2500°  F.,  which  affords  convincing  proof 
of  their  strength  and  durability.  Preparations  are  made  and 
sold  by  practical  brick  makers  which  prevent  the  white  efflores- 
ence  seen  so  often  upon  house  fronts  after  a  severe  frost.  A 
good  solution  for  the  cleansintr  or  restoring  of  old  brick  and 


MATERIALS    FOR    CONSTRUCTION.  295 

giving  to  them  their  natural  color  can  be  made  by  adding  one 
gill  of  muriatic  acid  to  two  gallons  of  water  and  applying  same 
with  a  sponge  or  brush. 

Stone,  provided  it  be  of  the  proper  quality,  has  many  advant- 
ages over  some  other  building  materials.  Its  durability  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  climate  to  which  it  is  exposed,  and  hence 
definite  rules  cannot  be  formulated.  The  Northern  and  Eastern 
States,  with  an  annual  precipitation  of  thirty-eight  to  fifty  inches 
and  wide  variations  of  temperature,  are  hard  and  severe  tests. 
Whereas,  our  Southern  and  Western  States,  having  a  tempera- 
ture more  uniform,  suffer  less,  and  many  a  porous  stone  used  in 
these  latter  named  States  which  stands  without  injury  for  a  cen- 
tury, would,  in  our  Northern  States,  be  found  undergoing  disin- 
tegration in  a  quarter  of  the  time. 

The  precautions,  therefore,  which  should  be  observed  in  the 
selection  of  building  stone  are  these  :  In  the  regions  where 
glacial  action  once  prevailed  and  where  the  mass  of  rotten  or 
decomposed  rock  has  been  entirely  removed,  if  the  surface  of 
the  rocks  as  displayed  in  the  outcrop  presents  a  fresh  and  un- 
decomposed  appearance,  this  may  be  asserted  as  a  strong  argu- 
ment in  its  favor,  although  it  cannot  be  accepted  as  conclusive. 
All  beds  or  quarries,  when  opened,  should  be  left  exposed  to  the 
strong  tests  of  light  and  weather  for  at  least  one  year.  At  the  ex- 
piration of  one  year  the  presence  of  any  readily  oxidizable  mineral 
will  have  asserted  itself,  and  the  extent  of  induration  or  disinte- 
gration, as  the  case  may  be,  will  furnish  a  clue  to  its  future  be- 
havior. A  good  building  stone,  whatever  its  kind,  should 
possess  a  moderately  fine  and  even  texture,  with  the  grain  well 
compacted  and  set;  when  struck  a  sharp  blow  with  a  hammer, 
it  will  give  a  clear,  ringing  sound,  and  will  show  a  clean,  fresh 
fracture,  without  exposing  a  series  of  veins  of  mica  strata  to 
the  sight.* 

The  porosity  of  any  stone  is  usually  characteristically  shown 
by  its  manner  of  drying  after  rain.  Some  stones  absorb  a  large 
quantity  of  water  and  will  remain  damp  for  a  long  period,  while 


*See  report  of  experiments  on  the  transverse  strength  and  elasticity  of  building 
stone,  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Johnson  :  "  The  resonance  of  each  piece  tested  was  propor- 
tioned to  the  modulus  of  elasticity  as  found  by  the  test."— /vV/V/Y  State  Geologist  of 
Indiana,  f rein  fa  per  by  G.  P.  Merrill,  Curatcr  Xat.  Museum,  U'us/i. 


296  HABITATIONS. 

others  will  dry  quickly,  and  in  this  respect  granite  affords  one  of 
the  best  resisting  stones.  Since  it  is  non-absorbent,  it  is  always 
dry  and  self  cleaning.  Of  sandstone,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
grains  of  which  it  is  composed  should  be  so  closely  compacted 
that  the  proportion  of  cementing  matter  need  be  very  small. 
The  various  life  estimates  of  stone  may  here  be  given.  By  the 
term  life  we  would  signify  the  number  of  years  a  stone  will 
stand  without  discoloration  or  disintegration. 

Life  in  vears. 

Coarse    brown  sandstone, 5~5° 

Laminated    tine  sandstone, 20-50 

Compact  fine  sandstone, 100-200 

Limestone— coarse  fossillifcrous, 20-40 

Limestone,  fine  colitic  (French), 30-40 

Marble    dolomite  (coarse), 40 

Marble  dolomite  (tine), 60-80 

Marble   (fine),     . 50-200 

Milestone   (sandstone), probably  centuries 

Nova  Scotia  sandstone, 50-200 

Ohio  sandstone  (best  silicious  varieties),  .    .  100  yrs.  to  many  centuries 

Granite, 50-200 

Gneiss. 50  yrs.  to  many  centuries 

Ohio  serves  us  with  many  good  qualities,  as  also  does  Iowa, 
from  pure  limestone  to  magnesium  limestone  and  dolomite. 
Connecticut  brownstone  also  furnishes  an  example  of  weather- 
resisting  stone,  and  Georgia  good  examples  of  veined  marble. 
Pure  limestone  may  be  said  to  be  as  weather  resisting  as  one  that 
contains  the  necessary  magnesium  to  constitute  a  true  dolomite. 
Prof.  Hall  considers  the  magnesium  limestone  less  durable  than 
the  pure  limestone.  The  presence  of  coarse  veins  of  mica, 
talc,  and  other  materials  materially  lessens  the  durability  of 
stone. 

In  adopting  stone  for  large  buildings  or  institutions,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  it  is  utterly  impervious  to  the  ravages  of 
fire,  although  it  may  be  accepted  that  limestone  has  a  resisting 
force  greater  than  that  of  sandstone,  and  granite  better  than 
either.  Sandstone,  coming  in  contact  with  severe  heat,  will  crack, 
scale,  and  break  in  a  short  time,  while  limestone  will,  after  ex- 
posure to  fire  for  twelve  hours,  be  found  sometimes  to  be  only 
superficially  calcined.* 

*  Shown  in  the  late  fitc  of  the  7'inifs  Annex  and  Central  Theatre,  Eighth  and 
Sansom  Streets,  Philadelphia. 


MATERIALS    FOR    CONSTRUCTION.  297 

Iron  and  steel  are  used  largely  in  connection  with  marble  and 
granite  or  glass  in  the  construction  of  fireproof  buildings  upon 
a  large  scale.  Their  advantages  are  manifest,  but  their  general 
use  is  not  promising  for  the  present.  In  conjunction  with  tile 
or  brick  in  the  interior  and  granite  stone  or  glass  on  the  ex- 
terior, they  leave  but  little  to  be  desired.  Their  resistance  to  all 
noxious  agents  renders  any  praise  from  a  sanitary  point  un- 
needed. 

Glass  Building  Blocks.  A  problem,  so  often  the  bane  of  all 
architects'  lives,  how  to  give  more  light,  or  secure  the  ingress 
of  light  in  dark  corners,  has  been  solved  by  the  introduction 
of  the  glass  brick  or  building  block,  formed  in  a  flask  shape, 
eight  inches  in  length,  the  tube  being  2l/±  inches  in  depth  and 
six  inches  in  width,  with  an  air  chamber  in  center.  The  entire 
form  is  nicely  moulded  with  an  apex  center,  and  along  the 
ridges  or  moulded  lines  the  glass  is  of  sufficient  thickness  to 
stand  a  pressure  of  150  to  200  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

This  ingenious  invention  came  from  Switzerland,  and  was 
shown  at  the  late  Paris  Exposition.  It  amply  proves  by 
its  strength  and  simplicity  the  utter  fallacy  of  our  any  longer 
suffering  from  the  ill  effects  so  often  found  in  hotels  and  other 
institutions,  of  having  dark  corners,  closets,  or  landings. 

All  the  lines  are  so  moulded  as  to  allow  of  its  being  set  top  and 
bottom  with  ordinary  cement,  while  the  ends  are  secured  by  means 
of  caoutchouc  or  rubber  cement,  thus  doing  away  with  framing 
lines.  Taking  an  ordinary  partitioned  wall  between  two  rooms, 
instead  of  using  brick  or  studding,  it  need  only  be  framed  on  the 
four  sides  and  the  bricks  set  in  one  deep,  as  that  will  then  give 
a  depth  from  apex  to  apex  of  nearly  five  inches.  In  remodeling 
old  buildings,  it  will  prove  of  the  utmost  value,  as  it  can  be 
used  for  outside  or  inside  walls,  and  the  utmost  safety  is  assured 
for  a  space  of  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  feet  in  length  and 
twelve  to  fourteen  feet  in  height. 

Baron  Rothschild  was  among  the  first  to  test  the  practicability 
of  glass  blocks  in  his  large  conservatory,  the  entire  span  or 
arched  roof  being  formed  of  these  bricks.  While  the  light 
rendered  for  all  ordinary  purposes  is  almost  equal  to  that  ot 
ordinary  glass,  it  does  not  admit  of  anything  being  seen  from 
the  opposite  side. 
19 


298  HABITATIONS. 

The  ordinary  bricks  bear  the  greenish  tint  of  common  glass 
and  are  made  in  half  and  quarter  sections.  For  all  ornamental 
purposes  colored  glasses  can  be  used,  and  for  bath  rooms  the 
plain  white  may  be  used  with  admirable  effect,  as  this  latter 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  tc  porcelain. 

Cement.  A  new  process  has  been  discovered  and  communi- 
cated to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  which  will  prove  an 
excellent  innovation  on  the  old  method  of  hardening  plaster-of- 
Paris  or  cement  so  that  it  may  be  rendered  durable  and  suitable 
for  flooring  purposes.  The  plaster  is  mixed  with  its  weight  of 
fine,  freshly  slacked  lime  and  as  little  water  as  possible.  After 
it  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  treated  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
either  zinc  or  iron  sulphate;  with  the  first,  the  hardened  plaster 
remains  white,  while  the  second,  by  gradual  oxidation,  yields 
the  color  of  iron  rust,  which  gives  it  a  fine  imitation  of  mahog- 
any under  the  application  of  linseed  oil.  This  will  prove  very 
durable  and  at  the  same  time  economical,  and  a  splendid  sub- 
stitute for  inlaid  and  damp-proof  floorings. 

Concrete  is  a  mixture  of  lime,  cement,  and  gravel  from  which 
the  fine  sand  has  been  eliminated;  stone  crushed  into  fine 
fragments,  broken  pottery,  slag,  rough  stone,  silicious  rock  and 
debris  of  coarse  fossiliferous  limestone,  and  glass  ;  gravel,  on 
account  of  its  less  adhesive  properties,  might  be  ignored.  Con- 
crete will  in  the  future  be  an  active  agent;  its  use  at  present  is 
limited,  being  used  without  the  proper  acknowledgment  of  its 
durability  and  strength,  but  here  and  there  used  for  founda- 
tions, floors,  and  walls.  The  time,  however,  will  come  when 
concrete  will  be  used  exclusively  and  houses  constructed  of  this 
material  throughout.  To  apportion  to  it  a  good  binding  pro- 
perty, it  should  be,  pro  rata,  made  with  good  cement. 

Protection  of  Walls  during  Building.  Without  regard  to  stress 
of  weather,  operations  on  walls  are  often  commenced  in  the  fall  or 
spring  of  the  year,  and  although  the  ground  may  be  staked  out 
during  a  period  of  fine  weather,  the  foundation  walls  are  com- 
menced right  upon  a  series  of  heavy  rains  and  frosts,  with  the 
natural  results  following — sinking  of  the  ground  and  a  frost- 
pierced  foundation  wall,  which  will  cause  a  loosening  of  the 
joints  and  a  bulging  of  the  upper  walls.  Specifications  of 
architects  usually  require  that  all  walls  shall  be  properly  cov- 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    FOUNDATIONS.  299 

ered  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  any  failure  to  do  so 
will  be  the  architect's  authority  for  having  them  repaired  at  the 
builder's  expense  and  at  the  architect's  discretion.  All  walls 
have  to  be,  or  should  be,  shown  upon  the  drawings,  and  the 
specifications  demand  good,  sound,  local  stone,  set  in  naturally, 
or  as  it  lies  in  the  quarry  bed. 

Foundations.  Except  where  the  foundations  are  of  rock  or 
other  solid  material,  a  foundation  of  good  concrete  should  be 
laid  as  a  base  for  the  wall  footings.  An  avoidance  of  this  pre- 
caution may  render  the  building  liable  to  subsidence,  and  thereby 
produce  cracked  walls.  The  depth  of  concrete  for  this  purpose 
can  only  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  weight  of  the  wall 
which  has  to  be  supported  ;  in  no  case,  however,  should  it  be 
less  than  eighteen  inches,  and  in  width  extend  at  least  six  inches 
beyond  the  footings.  The  height  of  the  footings  should  corre- 
spond to  at  least  two-thirds  the  thickness  of  the  wall  above,  and 
project  to  a  distance  of  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  This 
precaution  is  taken  to  prevent  the  stone  shaling  and  peeling  from 
atmospheric  conditions.  (This  applies,  of  course,  to  parts  ex- 
posed to  stress  of  weather,  and  not  foundation.)  The  stone 
should  be  laid  with  the  joints  horizontal,  but  not  crossed,  and 
should  be  also  of  sizes  oblong,  and  set  to  bed,  or  as  the  stone 
rests  in  its  natural  bed  in  the  quarry.*  The  stone  should  be 
thoroughly  bonded  in  good  mortar,  made  of  well-burnt  lime, 
and  clean,  sharp  bar  sand,  thoroughly  screened  and  mixed. 

Foundation  walls  for  all  dwellings  of  not  more  than  twenty 
feet  frontage  and  twenty-five  feet  high  should  not  be  less  than 
sixteen  inches  thick,  and  four  inches  should  be  added  for  every 
twelve  feet  additional  height.  Should  the  front  be  of  greater 
height  than  twenty  feet,  the  foundation  walls  should  then  be 
twenty-two  inches  in  width. 

Continental  and  English  authorities  regulate  the  height  of  their 
buildings  by  the  width  of  the  streets  upon  which  they  front ; 
i.  e.,  if  the  street  is  fifty  feet  wide,  fifty  to  eighty  feet  is  the 
greatest  height  that  may  be  legally  attained,  except  in  very  spe- 
cial cases,  such  as  church  spires  and  chimneys. 

*  In  order  lo  see  what  a  disregard  of  this  precaution  may  result  in,  see  the  First  Bap- 
tist Church,  northwest  corner  of  Broad  and  Arch  streets.  There  the  stone  is  in  a  state 
of  disintegration,  or  shaling. 


300 


HABITATIONS. 


Walls.  Above  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet  the  thickness 
should  be  determined  by  the  architect  and  the  building  in- 
spectors, after  due  consideration  of  the  purpose  for  which  the 
building  is  constructed.  Where  the  length  of  the  wall  is  not 
more  than  forty  feet  and  the  height  forty-five  feet,  the  first  story 
should  be  seventeen  inches  thick  and  the  remainder  thirteen. 
And  no  party-wall  built  over  the  line  should  be  less  than  thirteen 
inches  thick,  and  should  extend  ten  inches  above  the  roof.  No 
chimney  should  be  corbelled  out  more  than  eight  inches  from  the 

FIG.  85. 


ENGLISH  OR  BLOCK  BOND. 
FIG.  86. 


FLEMISH  BOND. 

wall,  nor  should  it  be  supported  other  than  by  stone,  and  where 
there  is  a  party-alley  the  party-wall  should  be  started  upon  an 
iron  channel  beam,  supported  by  iron  cross  beams.  No  timber 
should  be  used  for  any  wall  where  stone,  brick,  or  iron  is  com- 
monly used,  except  lintels.* 

In  the  construction  of  brick  walls,  it  is  necessary  to  so  inter- 


*  No  floor  beams  should  be  supported  wholly  upon  any  wooden  partition.  It  has 
been  and  is  the  common  practice  for  architects  to  specify  and  plan  for  wooden  studding 
in  ordinary  residences  as  partition  walls.  An  innovation  was  introduced,  however, 
by  one  of  our  architects,  who  specified  in  the  place  of  ordinary  partition  wall  with  stud- 
ding a  four  inch  wall  of  brick,  which  is  far  better,  but  a  building  inspector,  ih  his 
dense-  ignorance,  failed  to  see  the  wisdom  of  it. 


DAMP-PROOF    COURSE. 


301 


lace  the  bricks  that  they  will  tie  the  walls  together  in  all  direc- 
tions. At  the  present  day,  it  is  usual  to  increase  the  strength 
of  walls  by  the  introduction  of  bond  timbers  and  hoop-iron 
bonds.  This  applies  only  to  larger  buildings,  and  is  not  essential 
in  ordinary  dwellings. 

The  two  methods  of  bonding  in  ordinary  use  are  the  English 
and  Flemish  bonds.  In  the  former  the  courses  of  brick  are  laid 
alternately  lengthwise  and  endwise,  to  which  the  term  of  header 
and  stretcher  is  applied.  The  Flemish  bond  signifies  that  the 

FIG.  87. 


DAMI'-I-ROOF  COURSE  WITH  VENTILATED  AIR  CHAMUEK. 

bricks  are  laid  with  "  headers  "  and  "  stretches  "  alternating  in 
every  course.  Preference  may  be  given  to  the  former  English 
bond  on  account  of  its  superior  strength  and  the  facility  it  af- 
fords for  tying. 

Damp-proof  Course,  or  Air  Course.  Every  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  protect  the  house  from  dampness,  therefore  a  bar- 
rier should  be  imposed  which  will  prevent  the  moisture  being 
readily  absorbed  by  the  wall  from  the  soil  in  contact  with  it, 


302 


HABITATIONS. 


which  will,  by  capillary  attraction,  rise  even  to  the  upper  floors 
and  rooms,  rendering  the  house  damp,  unhealthy,  and  also  caus- 
ing the  paper  to  fall  from  the  walls.  Inconvenience,  useless 
expense,  accompanied  by  sickness,  is  the  inevitable  result.  This 
is  an  evil  which  cannot  be  remedied  after  the  house  is  built. 

A  dry  wall  may  be  obtained  by  placing  a  damp-proof  course 
or  air  chamber  in  the  wall  a  little  above  the  ground  level. 
Bricks  perforated  longitudinally  are  so  set  as  to  allow  a  current 
of  air  to  pass  freely  under  the  flooring  ;  where  the  house  is  built 
with  a  basement  kitchen  and  chambers,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
struct an  area  around  the  house,  the  bottom  of  \\hich  is  below 


FIG. 


DAMP-PKOOP  COI'HSK. 

Containing  a  slate  or  asphalted  stratum  clear  across  the  wall  beneath  the  cellar  and  above  the  ground 
level.     The  air  chamber  must  be  well  ventilated  at  many  points. 

the  basement  floor,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  damp-proof  course  being 
inserted  between  the  floor  and  the  bottom  of  the  area  in  the 
manner  described.  This,  however,  is  expensive  and  not  always 
practicable.  Slate,  though  often  used,  is  liable  to  break,  therefore 
it  is  better  to  use  asphalt  or  a  layer  of  cement. 


ROOF    AND    ROOFING. 


303 


Another  plan  is  often  substituted,  but  this  does  not  answer  so 
well  for  the  purpose.  The  method  for  this  is  to  build  that  portion 
of  the  wall  which  is  above  the  ground  hollow  and  insert  two  damp- 
proof  courses,  the  one  extending  across  the  whole  width  of  the 
wall,  below  the  basement  floor,  and  the  other  across  the  outer 
section  of  the  hollow  wall  a  little  above  the  ground  level.  In 
either  case,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  drainage  from  the 
bottom  of  the  area  or  cavity  ;  ample  openings  must  be  provided 
for  uninterrupted  ventilation. 

Another  method  in  use  is  to  place  in  the  cavity  slate  held  in 
position  by  a  bonding  tie  of  a  non-absorbent  material.  Stone- 
ware and  iron  ties  are  to  be  recommended,  since  they  are  not 
affected  by  moisture.  The  ties,  if  of  iron,  should  receive  a  coat 
of  tar  and  sand. 

It  is  found  that  masonry  may  be  rendered  impervious  to  water, 
especially  in  positions  exposed  to  direct  contact  with  that  ele- 
ment, by  the  application  of  coal  tar.  The  latter  is  employed  in 


IRON  BONDING  TIE. 


a  boiling  state  in  one  or  more  layers,  or  it  may  be  made  to 
flame  up  before  being  used,  the  first  being  suitable  for  surfaces 
exposed  to  the  air,  while  the  second  is  appropriate  in  the  case  of 
parts  intended  to  be  covered  up.  This  method  of  treating  foun- 
dations is  declared  to  be  of  special  utility  in  all  public  buildings, 
particularly  those  designed  for  the  preservation  of  works  of  art, 
preventing,  as  it  does,  exudations  of  water,  charged  with  lime 
salts,  from  the  mortar. 

All  necessary  openings  should  be  left  for  setting  of  soil  pipes 
and  arched  over  where  they  pierce  the  walls  and  the  earth 
rammed  solidly  at  the  back. 

Roof  and  Roofing.  A  good  roof  is  necessary  in  order  to 
maintain  dry  walls.  It  must  have  a  good  pitch,  and  be  suffi- 
ciently well  put  together  to  stand  all  stress  of  weather,  and  be,  in 
its  relation  with  the  other  parts  of  the  house,  a  question  of  little 
or  no  anxiety  to  yourself.  If  a  so-called  flat  roof  be  needed,  then  it 


304 


HABITATIONS. 


should  slope  toward  the  gutter  channels,  with  a  fall  of  not  less 
than  -"6  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  sufficient  to  cause  the  rapid  flow 
of  rain-water.  When  a  pitched  roof  of  slate  is  required,  there 
should  be  an  inclination  of  from  26  to  40  degrees. 

Materials:  Roofs  maybe  covered  with  tarred  felt,  tin,  slate, 
tile,  shingles,  lead,  copper,  cement,  etc. 

Tin  may  be  conceded  to  be  the  cheapest,  if  we  deal  with  the 
question  of  a  cheap  roof,  and  one  calculated  to  last,  if  properly 
painted  ;  two  good  coats  of  paint  must  be  applied  at  least  every 
fourth  year.  The  tin  plates  should  receive  one  coat  of  paint  on 
the  under  side  and  three  coats  on  the  upper  side,  composed  of 
the  best  linseed  oil  and  mineral  paint.  The  edges  should  be 
well  lapped  over  in  the  laying,  and  the  flashing  for  the  gables, 
against  the  chimneys,  or  in  the  valleys,  be  well  attached  to 
preclude  the  possibilities  of  rain  or  damp  forcing  its  way 
beneath.  Flashings  are  sheets  or  strips  of  metal  covering  the 
joints  of  the  tin  or  slate,  and  fastened  to  the  wall  or  chimney 
brick-work. 

Slate  is  used  very  extensively,  and  is  to  be  recommended  as  a 
good  roof.  The  characteristic  of  good  slate  is  its  ability  to 
resist  the  absorption  of  water  ;  an  approximate  test  may  be 
made  by  soaking  the  slate  in  water.  It  is  also  common  to  take 
it  and  breathe  upon  the  slate,  and  if  then  it  emits  a  clayey  odor 
or  "  dead  flesh,"  as  it  is  termed,  and  shows  a  moisture  mark,  it 
may  be  condemned.  A  fine  texture,  an  absence  of  heavy  veins 
or  streaks,  and  a  clear,  ringing  sound  when  struck,  may  be 
accepted,  however,  as  even  a  better  test.  The  sizes  ordinarily 
used  are  20  x  10,  18x10,  and  16x10  inches.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  have  each  row  overlap  the  other  by  2^  to  3  inches,  and  to 
interpose  beneath  the  slate  and  roofing  boards  a  layer  of  roof- 
ing felt.  Lath  in  place  of  boards  may  be  substituted  if  cost  is 
an  object ;  they  fail,  however,  to  give  a  uniform  support  to  the 
slates,  are  easily  damaged,  and,  further,  they  do  not  maintain  an 
even  temperature.  The  slates  should  be  held  in  position  by 
copper  nails,  never  by  iron  ;  y.inc  and  composition  nails  are 
sometimes  used. 

I.cad  and  zinc,  from  their  standard  of  durability  and  easy  facil- 
ity of  working,  are  valuable;  the  latter  is  more  extensively  used 
than  the  former.  Thur  disadvantage  lies  in  the  increased  weight, 


ROOF    AND    ROOFING.  305 

which  is,  roughly  speaking,  from  1 8  to  26  ounces  per  superficial 
foot.* 

Spanish  ti/ts,  made  of  clay  and  heavily  glazed,  are  rapidly 
coming  into  use.  They  form  a  handsome  roof,  and  although 
evidence  may  be  given  of  the  ability  of  the  old  tile  to  stand, 
time  alone  can  tell  for  the  present  ones.f  The  quality  of  the 
clay  and  the  smoothness  of  the  glaze  determine,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, the  durability.  The  better  glazed  tiles  are  more  hardened, 
and  stand  the  test  of  bad  weather  longer. 

Cement.  For  more  than  forty  years  the  Germans  have  used 
extensively  cement  in  the  roofing  of  various  buildings.  The 
cement  process  is  the  invention  of  a  German,  Carl  So  Ha,«usler, 
of  Hirschberg,  Silesia,  who  claims  that  in  Germany  it  can  be 
constructed  for  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  cents  per  square  meter 
(a  meter  equals  thirty-nine  and  one-half  inches),  exclusive  of  the 
cost  of  boarding,  the  supply  of  zinc,  and  gravel  necessary.  Its 
introduction  in  this  country  has  been  very  slow,  as  capital  has 
not  been  sufficiently  interested.  This  is  to  be  regretted,  how- 
ever, since  the  application  of  such  a  roof  renders  it  possible  for 
every  householder  to  enjoy  the  luxury  of  a  garden  roof  without 
detriment  or  destruction  to  the  rooms  beneath.]; 

Roof  Drains.  Draining  of  roofs  is  doubly  important,  not  only 
as  a  sanitary  measure,  but  for  preservation  of  the  timbers  and  walls 
as  well ;  provision  must  be  made  for  the  properly  securing  of 
the  hanging  gutters,  which  may  be  of  iron  or  tin — galvanized 
iron  having  the  preference, — by  adjustable  fasteners,  so  spaced 
as  to  properly  secure  same  from  pulling  out.  Directly  under  the 
eaves,  and  at  a  fitting  junction,  should  be  placed  the  conductor, 
which  may  be  round  or  square,  and  of  plain  or  corrugated  gal- 
vanized iron.  The  junction  between  the  gutter  and  the  con- 


*  Of  late  we  have  had  introduced  tiles  made  of  copper,  and  although  none  can  be 
pointed  out  in  illustrations,  yet  they  are  feasible  in  every  way,  and  no  doubt  exists  of 
their  ability  to  stand.  These,  however,  may  prove  very  expensive. 

f  It  is  a  secret  delight  to  architects  to  note  the  pictuiesque  tile  roof  of  the  Casino 
Building,  Leipsig,  Germany,  and  through  the  southeast  counties  of  England,  that 
have  so  well  stood  the  ravages  of  time  and  weather. 

J  According  to  the  reports  of  the  Town  Council  of  Frankenstein,  Germany,  and 
reports  furnished  by  the  Government  Architect,  Thenne,  of  Glogau,  the  cement  roof 
is  considered  the  best,  since  it  maintains  a  good  standard  of  diyness,  and  the  cost  of 
keeping  same  in  repair  is  very  small. 


306 


HABITATIONS. 


ductor  should  be  covered  by  a  perforated  cap,  rising  two  and 
one-half  to  three  inches,  or  by  a  network  of  galvanized  iron, 
drawn  wire,  of  such  mesh  as  to  prevent  any  material,  dead  leaves, 
mortar,  and  other  matter  from  passing  through  and  clogging  up 
the  conductor  and  trap. 

Basement  or  Cellar,  Excavations  for  the  cellar  should  be 
made  of  a  depth  not  less  than  seven  feet,  or  seven  feet  six  inches, 
clear  of  all  joists;  the  trenches  should  be  six  inches  deeper  than 
the  cellar  floor.  The  floor  should  receive  a  coating  of  good 
cement  or  concrete,  not  less  than  two  to  four  inches  in  depth  ; 
Portland,  Adamant,  Roman,  Kings,  Warren,  or  Parian  cements 
are  to  be  recommended.  These  are  admixtures  of  calcined  gyp- 

FIG.  91. 


FIG.  90. 


SHCTION  OF   CORNICE  AND  RAIN  GUTTER,  CROSS  SECTION  OF  RAIN   GUTTER. 

OK  CHANNEL. 


Fie..  93. 


FIG   92. 


RAIN  GUTTER  HRTWREN  Two  ROOFS,  WITH      RAIN  CONDUCTOR   COVKKHD  WITH  GUARD 
PERFORATED  IKON  GUARD.  OR  CAT. 

sum  and  other  substances,  and  are  capable  of  receiving  a  good 
surface  polish,  which  affords  a  better  resistance  to  accumulative 
dirt  and  becomes  non-porous.  Beneath  the  floor  there  should 
be  no  sewage,  water,  or  gas  pipes,  and  the  cemented  floor  may 
well  be  reflected  upon  the  side  walls  for  from  six  to  eight  inches. 


THE    KITCFIEN. 


307 


Where  these  directions  have  been  adhered  to  no  difficulty  will  be 
met  in  keeping  the  cellar  dry,  provided  the  walls  contain  a  damp- 
proof  course  and  the  excavations  have  been  properly  made.* 

Kitchen.  Small  kitchens  are  not  to  be  recommended  ;  12  x  16 
feet  may  be  considered  the  minimum  desirable.  A  wooden  floor 
is  objectionable  by  reason  of  its  offering  lodgment  for  all  kinds  of 

FIG.  94. 


u 

«Xi 

iHlcaeTt  'Hi'e^^fC 

KKONT  VIEW  OF  KITCHEN  DRESSER. 

roaches,  crickets,  and  kitchen-infesting  insects  ;  the  penetration 
and  retention  of  grease  renders  it  even  more  objectionable.  A 
floor  that  can  be  readily  and  easily  cleaned,  and  one  that  will 
last,  is  cement. | 

If  boards  are  used,  they  may  be  covered  or  stained. 


*  For  diagram  of  cellar  and  explanalion  of  parts,  see  illustration  under  "  Heating  by 
Furnaces,"  page  321. 

f  The  average  domestic  servant,  however,  dislikes  a  cement  floor,  and  claims  that 
it  is  cold. 


3o8 


HABITATIONS. 


FIG.  y5. 


See  that  the  range  is  a  good  one,  with  proper  facilities  for 
securing  an  abundance  of  hot  water;  it  should  be  set  to  the 
design  of  the  architect,  and  under  his  supervision. 

The  kitchen  windows  should  be  broad  and  lighted  with  tran- 
soms, or  falling  from  the  top,  as  this  serves  to  readily  carry  away 
heated  air,  smoke,  and  other  objectionable  gaseous  products,  and 
assists  in  maintaining  proper  ventilation.  The  walls  should  be  of 
rough  sand  finish,  or  finished  with  a  tile  dado  up  to  the  height  of 
four  feet.  Adamant  or  Keystone  plaster,  on  the  score  of  its 
quickly  hardening  properties,  may  be  recommended  as  a  good 
finish  from  the  moulding  or  chair  rail  to  the  ceiling.  Papered 
walls  are  not  to  be  considered. 

A  good  dresser  of  one  and  one-half  inch 
pine  should  be  erected  for  the  reception  of 
china  and  crockery  ware.  This  can  be  made 
in  the  form  of  Figs.  94  and  95  ;  have  three 
shelves  for  the  dishes  and  plates  to  stand 
securely  on  their  edges,  while  from  the  pro- 
jecting ledges  should  be  fastened  brass 
hooks,  upon  which  the  cups,  jugs,  and 
pitchers  can  hang.  The  broad  shelf  be- 
neath serves  as  a  stand  for  tureen  and  veget- 
able dishes,  beneath  which  may  be  two 
drawers,  in  sections,  one  for  the  ordinary 
table  cutlery  and  small  implements  inci- 
dental to  the  workings  of  a  kitchen,  while 
in  the  remaining  may  be  placed  the  kitchen 
linens.  Directly  under  this  will  be  seen 
what  is  termed  the  pot-board.  This,  in 
many  well-kept  houses,  is  blackleaded  and 
polished  in  the  same  manner  as  the  stove, 
and  forms  a  depository  for  all  pots,  pans, 
and  kettles.  The  entire  structure  is  freely 
movable  and  should  offer  no  lodgment  for 
vermin.  Two  cupboards  will  invariably  be 
asked  for  ;  these  should  be  placed  where  it  is  warm,  dry,  and 
light.  Where  it  is  possible  they  should  be  so  situated  as 
to  back  upon  the  solid  brickwork,  and  not  too  far  from  the 
range.  Where  it  is  necessary,  give  additional  light  by  insert- 


board 


U 


_!>ide. 


SlDH    Vll.W    OF     Fl 


VENTILATION    AND    HEATING.  309 

ing  in  the  wall  or  back  part  of  the  cupboard  four  of  the  Olivet 
patent  glass  building  blocks. 

Stairs.  An  open  stairway  is  best,  as  nothing  lends  so  much 
to  the  stately  presence  of  a  hall  as  a  good  stairway. 

Unfortunately,  this  cannot  always  be  given,  owing  to  the  small 
space  allowed  after  cutting  up  the  area  of  the  lot  for  the  respect- 
ive rooms,  and  oftentimes  the  architect,  much  to  his  chagrin,  is 
compelled  to  make  a  box  stairway.  The  risers  and  treads, 
however,  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  ascent  or  descent  can 
be  made  with  as  little  difficulty  as  possible — in  fact,  with  ease  and 
without  an  unnecessary  bending  forward  of  the  body  in  going 
up,  or  throwing  the  body  out  of  the  perpendicular  in  coming 
down. 

The  treads — by  this  we  mean  the  portion  of  the  stairs  on 
which  the  foot  is  placed — should  beat  least  one  and  one  quarter 
inch  in  thickness,  with  the  edge  nicely  rounded  with  a  half 
round  nosing  or  moulding. 

The  risers,  or  part  showing  to  the  front  and  supporting  the 
tread,  should  be  one  inch  in  thickness,  with  a  depth  or  height 
of  six  and  seven-eighths  inches  and  not  more  than  seven  inches, 
with  a  tread  of  ten  and  one-half  to  twelve  inches. 

VENTILATION  AND  HEATING. 

The  utility  of  ventilation  in  the  conservation  of  health  has 
been  one  of  the  oldest  traditions  in  all  hygienic  science.  The  fact 
that  the  air  in  which  we  live,  if  enclosed  from  the  limitless  space 
of  heaven,  rapidly  became  charged  with  noxious  elements  and 
demanded  renewal  was  recognized  long  before  medicine,  even  in 
its  cruder  form,  was  born.  The  knowledge  which  demonstrated 
the  reason  for  the  demand,  which  ventilation  filled,  has  also  re- 
duced its  problems  to  an  actual  science. 

Literally,  ventilation  means  "  to  fan  ;"  practically,  it  means  con- 
tinual displacement  or  dilution  of  the  products  of  animal  life, 
thrown  off  by  the  organs  of  respiration  and  cutaneous  excretion, 
or  other  noxious  agents  of  which  we  have  already  treated. 
Ventilation  may  occur  by  reason  of  natural  laws  which  regulate 
the  movement  of  gases,  in  which  case  it  is  entirely  dependent 
upon  such  a  multitude  of  extraneous  conditions  that  it  cannot  be 
continuouslv  effective  nor  under  control. 


3io 


HABITATIONS. 


Again,  artificial  means  may  be  adopted  to  secure  the  proper 
supply  of  fresh  air  and  removal  of  the  effete  products.  These 
may  be  of  the  simplest  construction  or  aids,  in  many  cases  mere 
permits,  for  ventilating  processes  to  go  on.  Among  these  will  be 
found  so-called  window  ventilators,  transom  exits,  and  conduits 
from  one  room  to  another — all  of  questionable  efficiency  at  best. 
These  arise  largely  from  the  criminal  ignorance  or  knavery  of 
architects  and  builders,  belonging  to  that  fortunately  diminish- 
ing class,  who  believe  that  a  large  enough  opening,  no  matter 
where  located,  must  of  necessity  secure  efficient  interchange  of 
air. 

The  amount  of  dilution  demanded  will,  of  course,  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  impurity  which  is  being  constantly  added,  and 
upon  the  purity  of  the  diluent,  at  the  same  time  considering  the 
space  occupied  and  the  possibility  of  wall  ventilation. 

In  estimating  quantity  the  factors  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion are  :  (A)  The  purity  of  the  available  air  to  be  used  for  the 
dilution.  (B)  The  noxious  agents  contaminating  the  chamber  to 
be  ventilated  by  dilution.  (C)  The  maximum  standard  of  im- 
purity which  is  to  be  considered  compatible  with  health.  (D) 
The  amount  of  the  available  air  necessary  to  secure  a  constant 
atmosphere  with  a  minimum  of  impurity. 
(a)  Tlic  purity  of the  available  air  to  be  used  for  tJic  dilution. 

It  is  necessary  to  say  that  it  must  be  selected  from  the 
best  attainable  source.  That  contaminated  atmospheres,  no 
matter  from  what  source  the  contamination,  are  to  be  rejected, 
and  as  these  contaminants  are  variable  or  not  constantly  present 
all  sources  must  be  avoided  where,  after  careful  examination, 
it  seems  probable  that  noxious  agents  may  gain  ingress.  Ven- 
tilation of  one  room  from  another  is  not  to  be  thought  of,  and 
the  utili/.ation  of  air  from  halls,  entries,  and  corridors,  for  the 
ventilation  of  rooms  is  to  be  condemned.  Equally  if  not  more 
dangerous  is  the  use  of  cellar  or  subway  air,  or  the  air  from 
under  houses  where  no  cellars  exist.  Where  any  difference 
exists  the  air  should  be  taken  from  that  point  containing  the 
least  suspended  matter  and  air  from  large  yards  selected  in 
preference  to  street  air;  proximity  to  water-closets,  cesspools,  or 
other  courses  of  air  pollution  is  to  be  avoided.  Where  feasible 
air  should  be  admitted  from  the  sunny  side,  as  it  will  be  warmer 


VENTILATION — PURITY    OF    AIR    USED.  3!  I 

and  proportionately  less  damp.  It  should  be  admitted  on  the 
side  of  the  house  against  which  the  prevailing  winds  impinge,  as 
these  favor  the  ingress  of  air  on  that  side  and  would  by  the 
diminished  pressure  retard  entrance  on  the  other  side. 

When  the  air  is  delivered  through  the  house  by  conduits  or 
utilized  for  heating,  to  be  considered  later,  it  is  admitted  all 
from  a  single  inlet,  the  height  from  the  ground  becoming  import- 
ant, as  does  also  the  immediate  surroundings  of  the  inlet.  It 
should  be  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  above  the  soil  level, 
screened  to  prevent  ingress  of  birds,  etc.,  and  the  earth  imme- 
diately beneath  the  point  of  inlet  should  have  abundant  short 
vegetation  ;  this  will  arrest  much  of  the  dust  precipitated  from 
the  surrounding  air,  which,  if  a  bare  or  paved  space  be  imme- 
diately beneath  the  inlet,  will  be  swept  in  by  the  first  gust  of 
wind.  In  the  winter  the  vegetation  cannot,  of  course,  so  act, 
but  the  almost  total  absence  of  dust  renders  it  unnecessary.  It 
was  at  one  time  believed  that  air  could  be  brought  down  from 
some  altitude  and  trapped,  as  it  were,  into  buildings,  but  "  back 
currents  "  are  so  likely  to  form  that  even  forced  draught  fails  to 
secure  an  abundant  ventilation  in  such  cases.  As  to  the  impu- 
rities already  described  as  present  in  air,  but  few  occur  in  air 
brought  in  under  the  conditions  above  given  ;  those  occurring 
are  usually  in  such  small  quantities  as  to  scarcely  demand  atten- 
tion except  as  computing  factors  in  estimating  quantity  of  air 
demanded.  Carbon  dioxid  is  almost  constantly  present  in  from 
.1  to  i  per  thousand  volumes,  rarely  the  latter;  hence  if  it  be 
desired  to  dilute  to  this  point  it  will  be  necessary  to  completely 
displace  the  entire  vitiated  air  of  the  room  as  often  as  a  single 
respiration  is  completed  in  its  atmosphere.  A  very  important 
factor  is  humidity,  and  this  is  materially  altered  by  heating,  the 
change  being  brought  about  in  two  ways:  (ist)  If  a  volume  of 
air,  say  1000  cubic  feet  at  32  F.,  be  raised  to  72°  F.,  the  volume 
under  the  same  barometric  pressure  becomes  1082.8  ;  as  the 
gross  amount  of  moisture  remains  the  same,  its  relative  per- 
centage is  radically  altered.  (2d)  Again,  if  the  atmosphere  be 
saturated  at  32°  F.  and  raised  to  72°  F.,  the  quantity  of  water 
demanded  for  saturation  at  the  higher  temperature  materially 
changes  ;  thus  at  32°F.  the  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  necessary 
to  secure  saturation  of  one  cubic  foot  of  air  (the  dew  pointj  is  2 


312  HABITATIONS. 

grains,  while  at  72°  F.  8.5  grains  will  be  required  for  an  equal" 

volume. 

(&)   The  noxious  agents  contaminating  the  chamber  to  be  ventilated. 

These  are  largely  the  products  of  the  occupants  of  the  room, 
and  have  been  considered  while  treating  of  air,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred.  Occasionally  foreign  matter  suspended,  as 
in  the  planing  mills  or  other  industries,  or  in  the  gaseous  form, 
as  in  mines,  will  demand  removal ;  in  such  case  special  pro- 
vision must  be  made. 

(c]   The  maximum  degree   of  impurity  which  is  to  be  considered 
compatible  with  health. 

Of  organic  matter  this  may  be  considered  as  the  least  pos- 
sible quantity  appreciable  to  the  senses,  the  basis  usually  given 
by  architects  and  sanitarians,  but  as  the  discernibility  of  different 
individuals  varies  to  such  an  enormous  degree,  such  a  rule  can- 
not be  of  any  actual  value,  for  what  is  barely  endurable  to  one 
becomes  unendurable  to  another,  and  is  imperceptible  to  a  third. 

Air  of  a  comparative  purity  contains  .1  milligram  or  less  of 
albuminoid  ammonia  and  less  than  .09  milligram  of  free  am- 
monia per  cubic  meter.  If  these  data  were  readily  attainable, 
which  they  are  not,  we  could  estimate  quantity  on  the  basis  of 
organic  matter. 

As  already  stated,  accurate  methods  for  determining  the 
quantity  and  composition,  which,  no  doubt,  varies  enormously, 
of  organic  matter  are  not  available,  and  hence,  though  such 
knowledge  would  be  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  human  race 
and  a  vast  aid  to  the  calculations  of  sanitarians,  we  must  resort 
to  other  methods  for  estimating  the  degree  of  impurity.  The 
number  of  bacteria  present  might  at  first  appear  to  offer  a  slight 
basis,  but  closer  observation  shows  the  fallacy  of  the  theory. 
Thus,  air  constantly  containing  the  smallest  number  of  patho- 
genic bacteria,  e.g.,  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis,  or  typhoid  fever, 
or  anthrax,  must  be  absolutely  dangerous,  no  matter  how  few 
the  number  of  such  organisms  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
inestimable  number  of  non-pathogenic  microbes  docs  not  of 
necessity  disprove  the  healthfulness  of  the  air  in  question. 

Furthermore,  the  introduction  into  the  room  of  enormous 
quantities  of  bacteria  may  temporarily  occur  from  a  dust-cloud 
or  the  agitation  of  a  single  dust  and  dirt-laden  garment. 


VENTILATION — QUANTITY    OF    AIR.  .  313 

As  a  last  resort,  undesirable  as  it  is,  we  are  driven  to  estimate 
quantity  upon  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  which  is  present. 
As  the  difference  between  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  in  the 
available  air  and  the  air  of  the  chamber  to  be  ventilated  repre- 
sents the  contamination,  it  must  of  necessity,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  afford  a  fairly  reliable  basis  upon  which  to  calcu- 
late the  quantity.  This  assumes  that  all  the  carbon  dioxid 
present  is  the  product  of  life,  and  makes  no  allowance  for  con- 
tamination due  to  lights  or  introduced  from  some  industry,  as 
in  soda-water  manufactories.  The  quantity  of  carbon  dioxid 
present  should  not  exceed  in  desirable  air  .75  per  1000,  and  if 
the  amount  in  the  available  air  used  for  dilution  is  less  than  .35 
per  1000,  good  ventilation  will  demand  that  the  minimum  of  im- 
purity in  the  apartment  ventilated  should  not  exceed  twice  the 
quantity  present  in  the  incoming  air.  Thus,  if  the  available  air 
contain  .03  per  cent.,  the  apartment  should  contain  no  more 
than  .06  per  cent. 

The  above  factors  being  known,  the  quantity  of  air  demanded 
for  ventilation  is  calculated  by  ordinary  arithmetical  formula:;. 
The  sanitarian  may,  however,  be  aided  by  remembering  that 
there  is  to  be  allowed  for  each 

Adult  male,  per  hour, 35°o  cubic  feet. 

"     female,  per  hour, 3000      '•       " 

Children,  per  hour, 2000      "       " 

As  the  proportionate  contamination  is  greater  for  the  adult, 
the  mean  will  be  slightly  greater  than  one-third  of  the  sum  of 
the  three,  or  about  3000  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Mctliods  by  wJiich  ventilation  is  secured. 

As  the  ideal  of  ventilation  is  the  entire  removal  of  noxious 
materials  as  soon  as  formed,  and  as  these  rise  from  the  body  by 
reason  of  their  increased  temperature  and  the  surrounding  heat 
currents,  a  method  of  ventilation  which  would  secure  the  con- 
stant upward  flow  of  the  air  with  the  fresh  air  inlet  through  the 
floor  would  be  perfection  itself.  Such  a  method  is  not,  of  course, 
attainable,  but  the  nearer  we  can  approach  it,  the  better  the  re- 
sults from  a  sanitary  standpoint.  In  summer  open  windows  and 
doors  afford,  in  dwellings,  means  of  ingress  and  egress  for  ven- 
tilating currents;  but  in  winter,  for  obvious  reasons,  we  must 

20 


314  HABITATIONS. 

secure  other  means.  In  large  audience  halls,  theaters,  and  man- 
ufactories the  windows  and  doors  cannot  be  depended  upon  to 
remove  the  enormous  quantities  of  effete  material ;  so  artificial 
means  must  be  utilized,  as  will  be  explained  later.  As  ventila- 
tion is  largely  brought  about  by  air  currents,  and  as  air  currents 
are,  under  natural  processes,  established  by  heat,  the  latter  is  de- 
pended upon  in  dwellings  to  secure  ventilation. 

HEATING. 

Heating  or  warming  of  any  given  space  is  dependent  upon 
the  transmission  of  heat  by  one  of  three  methods,  radiation, 
conduction,  or  convection. 

Radiation.  By  radiation  we  mean  the  heat  which  travels  in 
straight  lines  from  its  source,  but  little  affecting  or  affected  by  the 
air  through  which  it  passes.  The  glowing  coals  of  the  open 
grate  afford  the  best  example  of  radiant  heat  source.  It  seems 
necessary  for  efficiency,  however,  that  the  source  be  of,  at  least, 
a  dull  red  heat;  that  is,  it  must  be  at  a  very  high  temperature, 
although  at  all  temperatures  a  certain  amount  of  radiant  heat  is 
given  off. 

By  conduction  we  mean  the  transmission  of  heat  from  a  parti- 
cle of  matter  to  its  neighbor  without  the  necessary  intervention 
of  current  or  the  movement  of  either  particle.  Thus  the  hot 
water,  or  steam,  circulating  in  a  pipe  heats  the  inner  surface  of 
the  metal,  and  by  conduction  the  heat  passes  from  atom  to  atom 
until  the  surface  is  reached  and  the  air  becomes  heated  by  the 
atom  in  immediate  contact  with  the  iron  receiving  the  moving 
force. 

Convection  is  the  carrying  of  heat  by  the  currents  which  it 
produces.  The  process  is  really  but  one  form  of  conduction,  as 
the  heat/Vr  sc  is  not  modified  by  the  movement  and  is  the  pas- 
sive factor  in  the  current  which  it  established. 

Technically,  heating  is  said  to  be  accomplished  by  direct  radi- 
ation or  indirect  radiation.  Of  the  former  the  stove  affords  the 
best  example.  The  heating  is  accomplished  without  any  special 
consideration  for  securing  ventilation  ;  it  is  heating  without  ven- 
tilation, the  same  air,  by  convection,  being  heated  over  and 
over.  Ventilation,  if  it  occurs,  is  an  incident,  and  not  a  part 
in  the  process. 


HEATING OPEN    FIREPLACES.  315 

By  indirect  radiation  is  meant  the  introduction  of  air  already 
heated,  the  heating  being  accomplished  elsewhere  than  in  the 
room  itself.  Various  combinations  of  the  two  methods  have  been 
made,  and  a  third  form,  known  as  direct-indirect  radiation,  has  been 
introduced.  By  this  is  meant  that  the  source  of  heat  is  within 
the  apartment  and  is  therefore  radiating  or  heating  direct  (really 
heating  by  convection),  and  at  the  same  time  fresh  air  is  being 
introduced  through  the  heating  apparatus,  securing  indirect 
heating. 

Open  Fireplaces.  These  heat  almost  exclusively  by  radiation 
and  are  the  only  appliances  in  which  this  method  forms  the  es- 
sential heating  factor.  Not  only  do  open  fireplaces  heat  by 
direct  radiation,  but,  by  inducing  a  current  of  air  in  the  flue, 
heating  by  convection  is  prevented,  and  ventilation  abundantly 
secured.  Much  has  been  done  of  late  to  make  open  fireplaces 
generally  available.  The  old  forms  were  very  extravagant  in 
the  use  of  fuel,  the  larger  quantity  of  heat  going  up  the  chimney 
or  flue,  at  least  94  per  cent,  of  the  available  heat  being  lost  in 
this  manner.  A  few  innovations  of  late  years  have,  however,  in- 
creased the  heat  yield  of  grates  :  (ist)  The  rifle-back  chimney, 
(2d)  floor-fed  flues,  (3d)  under-fed  fires,  (4th)  draught  reg- 
ulators, (5th)  water-backs  with  circulating  apparatus  attached. 

(ist)  Rifle-back  flues,  or  chimneys,  consist  of  a  long  projecting 
ledge  of  firebrick  directly  over  the  fire,  extending  forward  from 
three  to  six  or  more  inches,  depending  somewhat  upon  the 
depth  of  the  fireplace.  This  horizontal  projecting  ledge  be- 
comes heated,  in  the  most  approved  forms,  to  almost  redness,  and 
thus  forms  a  second  source  for  radiation.  Instead  of  firebrick 
asbestos  may  be  used.  The  firebrick  in  some  forms  of  rifle-back 
is  made  corrugated,  thus  increasing  the  radiating  surface  ;  in 
other  forms  the  back  is  so  set  that  its  angle  may  be  altered  at 
will,  a  factor  theoretically  valuable,  but  practically  it  has  been 
found  that  there  is  great  annoyance  from  breakage. 

(2d)  Floor-fed  flues  or  grates  are  grates  or  fireboxes  placed 
on  a  level  with  the  floor,  the  draught  being  supplied  from  be- 
neath the  floor  of  the  room  to  be  heated,  and  the  ashes  passing 
by  a  conduit  in  the  wall  to  a  proper  receptacle  in  the  basement, 
or  occasionally,  in  suburban  and  country  houses,  to  ash-pits  on 
the  outer  wall.  The  advantages  of  this  form  of  grate  lie  in  the 


316  HABITATIONS. 

lowness  of  the  heat  source,  the  freedom  from  dust,  as  by  a 
mechanical  stoker  the  ashes  are  dropped  without  ingress  to  the 
room  as  it  occurs  in  the  ordinary  grate,  and  the  perfect  control 
of  the  under-draught  regulates  the  supply  of  air  and  hence  the 
rate  of  combustion,  thus  lessening  waste.  There  is  no  reason 
for  not  combining  the  rifle-back  and  floor-fed  grates,  or  the  two 
with  the  next  form. 

(3d)  Under-fed  fires  or  grates  possess  additional  commend- 
able qualities.  As  already  stated,  radiation  is  most  efficient 
where  the  heat  is  high,  red,  or  approaching  redness,  an  ideal 
being  a  bed  of  live  coals.  In  under-fed  fires  it  is  the  idea  to 
supply  the  fresh  fuel  at  the  bottom,  carrying  the  live  or  red 
coals  to  the  top.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  a  special  form  of 
shovel  is  required,  by  means  of  which  the  coal  is  supplied  im- 
mediately beneath  the  burning  fire,  keeping  the  hotter  layer  on 
the  surface.  These  grates  have  not  been  used  in  this  country, 
but  in  England  have  given  very  great  satisfaction.  The  greatest 
difficulty,  however,  arises  in  securing  satisfactory  stoking,  as  with- 
out great  care  and  some  experience  the  fire  cannot  be  maintained. 

(4th)  Draft  regulators  are  supplied  in  some  open  fireplaces 
both  above  and  below  the  fire,  and  in  some  forms  a  shift 
circuit  is  made  behind  the  grate,  thus  lessening  the  current 
through  the  fire  and  diminishing  combustion.  The  simplest 
regulator  consists  of  a  hood  made  of  sheet-iron  so  fitted  as  to 
close  the  fireplace  above  the  fire  or  grate,  or  to  close  the  grate 
below  the  fire ;  in  the  former  instance  the  entire  draught  flows 
through  the  burning  fuel  and  hastens  combustion,  but  carries 
practically  all  the  heat  up  the  flue.  If  placed  below  the  grate 
the  air  current  through  the  fire  is  reduced  to  that  flowing  be- 
tween the  bars  and  a  dull,  slowly  burning  fire  is  secured.  Chim- 
ney-draft arresters,  or  dampers,  are  sometimes  placed  above 
the  fire,  but  these  are  not  to  be  advised,  as  they  may,  by  inju- 
dicious use,  be  made  to  so  occlude  the  flue  as  to  lead  to  pollu- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  of  the  room  by  face  currents,  thus  con- 
verting the  fireplace  into  a  stove  with  open  door  and  closed 
damper.  The  danger  may  be  lessened,  although  not  removed,  by 
only  permitting  a  clamper  which,  when  entirely  closed,  cannot 
be  made  to  occlude  the  draft.  Circuiting  flues  are  occasion- 
all}-  used  to  lessen  chimney  waste.  These  are  regulated  by 


HEATING OPEN    FIREPLACES.  317 

dampers  and  the  escaping  current  from  the  fire  is  made  to  partly 
return  to  a  lower  level,  and  may  be  here  passed  close  to  the  sur- 
face of  a  mantel  or  fire-board  heater,  and  heating  by  convection 
secured.  Such  flues  are  regulated  by  suitable  dampers. 

(5th)  Water-back  fireplaces  have  many  forms  with  great 
differences  in  construction,  although  containing  the  same  essen- 
tial features.  Back  or  over  the  grate,  sometimes  at  the  sides  as 
well,  a  metallic  chamber  is  arranged  which  contains  a  thin 
vertical  layer  of  water  so  placed,  and  having  suitable  connections 
with  a  circulating  water  system  above  and  in  front  of  the  fire 
and  flue,  as  to  secure  a  small  hot-water  circulating  system  to 
heat  by  convection  or  direct  radiation.  Some  of  these  forms  of 
water-back  grates  may,  in  the  future,  be  made  practically  avail- 
able, although  at  present  they  are  disproportionately  expensive. 

Objections  to  Open  Fireplaces.  Aside  from  the  enormous  waste 
in  fuel  which  takes  place  when  open  fireplaces  are  used,  they  do 
not  offer  an  available  quantity  of  heat  for  very  low  temperatures. 
After  a  fair  trial  of  double  fireplaces  (i.  c\,  fireplaces  arranged 
back  to  back)  in  small  army  hospitals,  Billings  concludes  that 
very  fair  heating  and  excellent  ventilation  maybe  secured  where 
the  external  temperature  is  not  below  30°  F.  Below  this  point 
even  the  best  forms  do  not  efficiently  heat  the  room,  as  the  cold 
air  entering  the  room  maintains  too  low  a  temperature  by  its 
continuous  dilution  of  the  warmer  air  present  at  a  given  time. 
As  the  Northern,  Western,  and  Central  States  of  the  Union 
are  extremely  liable  to  lower  temperature  than  30°  F.,  fire- 
places will  remain  in  these  regions  one  of  the  best  ven- 
tilating accessories  to  a  heating  plant,  but  cannot  be  depended 
upon  to  secure  satisfactory  warming. 

Of  the  fuels  to  be  used  in  open  fireplaces,  anthracite  coal 
offers  the  most  available  heat  with  the  least  expense,  while  wood 
and  bituminous  coal  give  that  cheerful,  satisfying  sense  of  grati- 
fication not  supplied  by  any  other  means  of  heating.  Xot  infre- 
quently, in  the  presence  of  such  fires,  one  forgets  the  face-roasting 
and  the  back-freezing  accompaniment  of  open  fireplaces  in  cold 
snaps.  In  England,  where  extreme  cold  snaps  are  rare,  the  open 
grate  is  very  generally  used  either  alone  or  combined  with  steam 
or  furnace  heat.  France  also  uses  the  open  fireplace.  Instead  of 
soft  coal,  fagots  of  coal  and  charcoal  are  used,  and  occasionally 


318  HABITATIONS. 

wood.  Where  natural  gas  can  be  had,  as  in  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania, West  Virginia,  and  Ohio,  firebricks  are  placed  in  open 
crates,  the  eras  admitted  below  and  burned  through  the  broken 

o  o  o 

bricks;  this  heats  them  to  redness  and  affords  an  abundant  supply 
of  radiant  heat.  The  temptation  to  dispense,  either  altogether 
or  partly,  with  the  escape  flue  must  be  avoided,  as  the  ventilating 
element  is  thereby  abolished  and  the  apartment  dangerously 
contaminated  by  the  products  of  combustion. 

Stows.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  there  is  no  well-founded 
objection  to  any  form  of  heating  which  the  stove  does  not  pos- 
sess. With  the  possible  exception  of  expense,  the  statement  is 
axiomatic ;  if,  however,  sickness  attributable  to  the  bad  ventila- 
tion of  stove-heated  apartments  be  computed  against  their  ap- 
parent inexpensiveness,  stoves  will  compare  unfavorably  with  all 
other  forms  of  heating. 

Stoves  heat  almost  exclusively  by  convection  (direct  radiation), 
heating  the  same  air  over  and  over,  utilizing  but  a  very  small 
quantity  for  draft,  and  thus  demanding  but  a  scant  air  supply 
to  the  room.  As  ordinarily  constructed,  loose  joints,  pervious 
casting,  and  badly  fitting  flues  secure  abundant  air  contamination. 
Technically,  stoves  heat  by  direct  radiation,  truly,  however,  they 
radiate  but  little  unless  heated  to  redness,  something  not  to  be 
thought  of,  as  organic  matters  in  the  air  are  decomposed  by  con- 
tact with  the  superheated  surface  and  soon  produce  an  abundant 
atmospheric  odor  peculiar  and  easily  recognizable  as  arising  from 
stove-heated  surface.  Superheated  cast  iron  leaks  carbon  mon- 
oxid  and  carbon  dioxid,  while  wrought  iron  cracks  and  breaks 
joints  under  any  very  high  temperature.  Another  fault  con- 
stantly present  in  stove-heated  rooms  is  deficient  moisture.  A 
cubic  foot  of  air  admitted  to  the  room  contains,  we  will  assume,  at 
40°  F.,  three  grains  of  aqueous  vapor.  If  the  temperature  be  raised 
to  70°  F.  the  same  quantity  of  moisture  will  be  present,  but  the 
quantity  demanded  to  make  the  relative  humidity  the  same  at  70° 
F.  which  it  was  at  40°  F.  will  be  over  twice  the  amount  present  at 
the  lower  temperature,  or  about  eight  grains  of  aqueous  vapor. 
If  the  additional  moisture  be  not  supplied,  the  excessively  dry 
atmosphere  abstracts  a  quantity  from  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes, more  particularly  the  latter,  and  is  therefore  not  only  un- 
comfortable, but  absolutely  inimical  to  health. 


HEATING    BY    STOVKS. 


319 


What  has  been  said  of  stoves  applies  to  any  apparatus  which 
heats  a  room  without,  at  the  same  time,  affording  some  facilities 
for  ventilation.  Stoves  are  made  which  are  presumed  to  accom- 
plish ventilation  in  various  ways.  They  are  constructed  like  open 
grates,  many  exactly  resembling  an  open  fireplace  ;  but  none  of 
these  are  without  the  fatal  damper  or  short  horizontal  flue  or  re- 
turn current  flue,  which  cuts  off  the  draft  or  lessens  jt,  and  thus 
creates  all  the  dangers,  although  often  to  a  lesser  degree,  of  the 

FIG.   96. 


FRESH  AIR  REGISTER. 

Form  applicable  to  any  method  of  heating  by  what  is  known  as  direct  radiation,  such  as  stoves  af- 
ford, or  combined  with  a  steam  or  hot-water  heater,  may  constitute  a  form  of  the  direct-indirect 
heating  method. 

common  form  of  stove.  If  the  flue  or  damper  arrangements  do 
not  accomplish  this,  the  stove  is  no  economy  and  uses  as  much 
fuel  as  the  open  fireplace,  it  is  less  attractive,  and,  at  its  best, 
less  safe.  A  stove  is  made  which  permits  of  a  cold  and  warm 
air  register,  bringing  in  fresh  air  and  heating  it  in  a  jacket,  much 
as  does  the  furnace,  but  such  a  stove  is  not  so  good  nor  cleanly 
as  the  furnace,  and  is  to  be  again  condemned,  as  it  possesses  all 


3-o 


HABITATIONS. 


the  dangers  common  to  its  class  in  a  less  marked  but  unavoid- 
able form. 

On  account  of  its  cheapness  the  stove  will  undoubtedly  re- 
main a  factor  in  heating  until  something  as  cheap  and  as  generally 
useful  can  be  devised  to  supplant  it.  If,  therefore,  it  be  a  neces- 
sary evil,  how  shall  we  best  entertain  it?  It  had  best  be  made  of 
Norway  iron  and  lined  with  firebrick,  or  its  equivalent,  fire-lining. 
This  makes  the  supply  of  heat  fairly  constant,  prevents  sudden 

FIG.  97. 


CROSS  SECTION  op  OKKMAN  STOVE. 


rises  and  falls  of  temperature,  and  lessens  the  tendency  to  super- 
heating; with  a  constant  clement  of  heat,  a  constant  draft,  small 
though  it  is,  will  thus  aid  in  securing  ventilation.  Kxit  flues  for 
the  hot  and  fou  lair  must  be  secured, and  cold  air  registers  supplied. 
Wood  or,  better,  anthracite  coal  or,  best,  gas  may  be  the  fuel  ;  if 
the  latter,  it  is  to  be  used  as  already  spoken  of  under  open  fire- 
places. On  a  large  scale,  with  abundant  fresh  air  inlets  and  foul 
air  outlets,  the  (ierman  stove  possesses  many  advantageous  points. 


HEATING    HY    FURNACES. 


321 


This  usually  stands  in  the  corner  of  the  room,  and  although 
made  of  brick  internally,  is  faced  with  porcelain  tiles  and  some- 
times richly  ornamented  with  terra  cotta  and  hand-painted  work. 
There  is  probably  no  form  of  heating  appliance  which,  in  the 
absence  of  ventilation,  is  so  economical,  and  it  is  probable  that 
it  might  be  used  with  efficient  ventilation. 

Furnaces.     Hot-air  furnaces  in  this  country  afford  the  most 


FIG.    08. 


PLAN  OF  CELLAK,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  HBATEK,  ETC. 

The  location  ot  the  furnace  should  be  central  and  sunk  ten  inches  below  the  cellar  floor,  with  a  margin 
around,  as  a  receiver  for  the  cinders,  and  better  feeding  for  the  fire.  The  cold-air  supply,  either 
round  or  square,  should  extend  to  the  window,  and  be  supplied  with  a  section  or  supply-screw 
damper  for  temporizing  the  supply  of  cold  air.  This  is  important  and  should  be  regulated 
according  to  the  change  of  wind.  Where  it  is  possible  see  also  that  the  coal  bin  is  placed  in 
the  rear  of  the  house,  best  under  any  circumstances  have  it  pitched  directly  under  one  or  more 
of  the  basement  or  cellar  windows.  This  renders  the  delivery  of  coal  easy  and  does  not  locate 
the  bin  in  the  dark.  There  should  be  a  bin  each  for  the  kitchen  and  furnace  coal.  The  trap- 
door and  steps  from  the  cellar  to  garden  is  shown  to  the  right  and  in  front  of  the  furnace. 
Shelves  are  provided  for  the  storing  of  liquids,  etc.,  and  here  the  refrigerator  will  find  a  good 
standing-place  in  winter  and  summer. 

common  method  of  heating.  Technically,  they  heat  by  indirect 
radiation,  and  hence  afford  ventilation.  Billings  considers  that 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  hot-air  furnaces,  as  at  present  used,  is  the 
disproportionately  small  heaters  for  the  work  to  be  accomplished. 


322 


HABITATIONS. 


He  advises  as  best,  and  equally  economical,  comparatively  large 
heaters,  possessing  abundant  radiating  surface  and  not  requiring 
that  the  fire-pot  be  heated  to  redness  in  order  to  secure  the 
necessary  degree  of  warmth.  Superheating  leads  to  breaking 
of  joints  and  leakage  of  the  products  of  combustion  into  the 
heated  air.  Cast-iron  furnaces  are  presumed  to  be  less  safe  in 
this  respect  than  vvrought-iron,  tile,  or  brick  ones;  but  it  is  not 
probable  that  with  proper  construction,  a  thing  rarely  attained 
in  any  of  them,  one  offers  much  advantage  over  another. 

The  furnace  may  be  located  as  in  Fig.  98.  Here  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  furnace  is  set  as  near  the  center  as  possible,  as 
this  gives  an  equal  proportion  of  pipes  for  the  distribution  of 
the  heat.  When  applicable,  it  is  probably  best  to  locate  the 
furnace  nearest  the  side  of  the  house  upon  which  the  prevailing 
winds  impinge.  There  should  be  a  cold-air  supply-pipe,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  for  carrying  fresh  air  to  the  heater. 
The  walls  of  the  pipe  or  inlet  should  be  air-tight  in  its  passage 
through  the  wall  of  the  cellar  and  through  the  cellar  itself,  in 
order  to  exclude  ground-air  or  the  vitiated  air  of  the  basement. 
Heat  travels  slowly  after  leaving  the  stove  and  entering  the 
hot-air  pipes;  therefore,  where  the  lines  are  horizontal  or  nearly 
so,  there  should  be  an  elevation  of  not  less  than  one  and  one- 
half  inches  to  the  running  foot.  Hence  the  necessity  of  setting 
the  furnace  down  in  a  slight  pit  of  ten  to  fourteen  inches,  where 
the  cellar  is  low. 

All  the  rooms  standing  north,  northwest,  or  northeast  should 
have  the  advantage  of  the  greatest  heat,  therefore  the  short 
pipes  should  lead  directly  to  these,  as  the  wind  blowing  from 
those  points  tends  to  rapidly  force  the  heated  air  into  the  rooms 
standing  south,  southeast,  or  southwest. 

Kvery  precaution  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  hot-air  flues 
arc  never  placed  in  an  outer  wall,  where  it  is  possible  to  avoid 
it,  as  this  only  causes  an  unnecessary  loss  of  heat.  But  where 
forced  to  carry  them  into  the  outer  wall,  double  tin  flues  should 
be  used  with  a  sufficient  air-space  between  the  inner  and  outer 
flues  to  economize  the  heat. 

The  upper  stories  should  be  heated  independently  of  the  first- 
floor  supply-flues,  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  first  floor 
is  the  most  difficult  to  heat. 


HEATING    BY    FURNACES. 


323 


In  placing  the  registers  on  the  first  floor,  it  is  better  to  place 
them  on  the  most  exposed  side  of  the  room,  even  though  to  do 
so  involves  the  expenditure  of  a  greater  length  of  pipe. 

While  many  advocate  the  locating  of  the  register  in  the  floor, 
yet  it  has  its  side  of  objection,  since  it  is  always  liable  to  swal- 
low up  a  great  portion  of  the  dust  from  the  carpet  sweepings, 
etc.,  which  cannot  be  easily  avoided. 

In  locating  wall  registers  care  should  be  taken  to  have  these  of 


WALL  REGISTER,  SHOWING  RELATION  OF  PARTS. 

II  fresh-air  inlet,  as  indicated  while  considering  stoves,  he  placed  immediately  over  this,  abundant 
facilities  will  be  secured  for  ventilation.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  to  place  a  shutter  in  the 
fresh-air  inlet,  as  if  both  be  open  a  circuit  may  be  formed  between  them,  the  hot  air  not  diffusing 
with  the  general  atmosphere  of  the  room. 

ample  proportions.     The  following  table  will  afford  the  neces- 
sary information  and  at  once  determine  the  size  required: — 

FIRST  FLOOR. 


SIZE  OF  ROOM  IN 
CUBIC    FEET. 


SIZE  OF  PIPE. 


SI/E  OF  REGISTER. 


If  Round. 


If  Square. 


If  Round. 


If  Square.  . 


Less    than      1500  7  inches  4\    9  inches          9  inches  Jx  10  inches 

1500  to  2000  4  x  1 2      "  lo       "  S  x  10      " 

2000   "    3000  9      "  4\  16      "  12       "  8x  12 

3000   "   4000  10      "  4x  iS      "  12       "  gx  14      " 


3^4 


HABITATIONS. 


For  all  second  and  third  stories  the  pipes  and  registers  should 
be  diminished  in  proportion,  and  for  halls  in  dwellings  an  Sx  10 
inch  register  will  be  sufficient,  unless,  of  course,  the  hall  is  of 
huge  dimensions,  when  the  same  calculations  can  be  applied 
as  directed  for  rooms. 

Steam  and  Hot-water  Heating.  These  two  methods  have  be- 
come very  generally  used  in  houses  a  little  more  pretentious 

FIG.  100. 


the  fire-box  and  con 
nection  at  li,  it  passe 
marks  the  height  of  t 
the  cooling  of  the  <:u 
favors  the  return  flo 
heated. 


HOT-WATER    SYSTEM. 

heated  by  fire  at  A.  C,  C  show  furnace  line,  so  that  I)  to  I)1  is  without 
titutes  a  short-circuit  system.  As  the  heated  water  rises  from  boiler  con- 
along  the  efferent  tube,  H,  li,  15,  from  which  rises  the  stand-pipe,  P,  which 
ic  water  in  the  system.  When  the  heated  water  reaches  the  radiator,  S, 
rent  leads  to  a  continuous  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  column,  and  hence 
through  the  afferent  pipe,  K,  E,  entering  the  boiler  at  U,  to  be  again 


than  the  furnace-heated  houses.  Large  buildings  are  almost 
exclusively  heated  by  steam,  hot  water  being  reserved  for  dwell- 
ings, hospitals,  green-houses,  henneries,  etc.  The  hot-water 
system  requires  great  care  in  setting,  as  a  very  little  neglect  of 
the  principle  involved  may  preclude  the  working  of  the  entire 


STEAM    AND    HOT-WATER    HEATING.  325 

system.  Exactly  what  this  principle  is  can  be  best  illustrated 
by  the  accompanying  figure. 

The  success  of  the  system  is  dependent  upon  a  minimum  of 
friction  in  the  currents  and  the  placing  of  the  radiator  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  secure  a  constant  downward  flow  of  the  cooled 
water.  It  is  simple  enough  for  a  single  radiator,  but  where  a 
large  number  are  used  on  different  floors  at  varying  altitudes,  in 
cool  places  and  sheltered  places,  and  where  the  working  of  the 
entire  system  is  dependent  upon  each  individual  part,  many  dif- 
ficulties will  be  encountered.  If  properly  constructed  and  the 
heating  planned  for  when  the  house-plans  are  made,  this  system 
is  probably  the  most  economical,  both  in  fuel  used  and  repairs 
demanded.  Where  these  precautions  are  not  taken,  or  where 
old  buildings  are  to  have  modern  methods  applied,  or  in  very 
large  buildings  with  greatly  varying  altitudes,  steam-heating  is 
more  applicable.  In  steam-heating  such  great  care  is  not  nec- 
essary for  planning  the  system,  and  as  a  great  percentage  of 
plumbers  and  gas-fitters  are  acquainted  with  steam-fitting,  extra 
skill  is  not  so  much  needed.  It  is  not  necessary  that  every  part 
of  the  system  be  planned  to  the  line,  as  the  currents  of  steam 
travel  rapidly  and  are  backed  by  pressure  to  secure  forward 
movement.  In  steam-heating  the  boiler  may  be  on  any  level, 
and  battery  arrangement  of  radiators  is  not  necessary.  The 
higher  pressure  and  the  closed  circuit  make  the  possibility  of 
explosions  to  be  considered,  although  modern  safety  appliances 
have  reduced  this  danger  to  a  minimum.  The  accumulation  of 
sediment  in  the  boiler  and  many  annoyances  for  repairs  are  pos- 
sibilities more  constantly  associated  with  steam  than  hot-water 
heating.  Beside  the  indifferent  knowledge  necessary  to  secure 
efficient  heating  by  steam,  the  cheapness  of  the  supply  in  manu- 
facturing and  industrial  establishments  makes  it  the  most  readily 
available  system.  Used  or  exhaust  steam  may  be  passed  through 
the  heating  system  and  applied  exactly  as  though  coming  directly 
from  the  boiler. 

In  the  distribution  of  heat  the  two  methods,  direct  and  in- 
direct radiation,  are  used.  On  account  of  its  cheapness  the 
direct  has  been  most  applied.  It  is  the  same  method  of  heating 
as  the  stove  and  is  open  to  the  same  objections,  except  that  the 
direct  steam  or  hot-water  radiator  does  not  utilize  even  a  little 


326 


HABITATIONS. 


bit  of  the  air  of  the  room  in  necessary  currents.    As  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  ventilate  in  order  to  secure  satisfactory  heating, 


DlKBCT-INUIKECT  HliATINl.. 

Radiator  located  under  a  window  and    fresh  air  admitted  through   perforated  bottom    and     between 

the  radiating  surfaces 

no  form  of  direct  radiation  should  be  tolerated.  A  form  of  heating 
in  which  the  faults  of  the  direct  method  are  mitigated  by  secur- 


INDIRECT    RADIATION. 


327 


ing  the  entrance  of  air  through  the  radiator  is  known  as  the 
direct-indirect  method.  The  theory  involved  is  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying illustration.  Many  forms  of  radiator  and  inlet  are 
constructed  on  the  principle  here  shown.  In  some,  the  air  cur- 
rent is  carried  through  between  a  battery  or  succession  of  radi- 
ating surfaces ;  as  this  might  at  times  overheat  the  room,  the 

FIG.  102. 


radiating  coils  or  columns  are  so  arranged  that  one  or  more 
may  be  cut  out  of  the  circuit,  or  the  steam  may  be  turned  on  in 
only  a  few  of  them.  In  some  houses  architects  plan  the  fresh- 
air  inlet,  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  closed  by  a  damper,  the  idea 
being  that  when  no  one  occupies  the  room,  the  indirect  heating 
may  be  turned  off  and  an  economy  of  heat  secured  by  allowing 


328 


HABITATIONS. 


only  direct  radiation.     While  this  can  be  done  it  not  infrequently 
occurs  that  the  fresh-air  inlet  is  not  opened  for  several  hours,  if 


FIG.  103. 


mfflffimrammm: 


INDIRECT  HEATING. 

Same  as  preceding  figure,  except  that  corrugated  or  pin-barrel  radiator,  either  steam  or  hot  water,  is 
here  shown,  combined  with  a  wall  register. 

ever,  and  the  ^ood  intention  becomes  a  danger.      Instead  of  the 
cold-air  inlet  ascending  through  the  wall  to  the  radiator,  it  is  recom- 


INDIRECT    RADIATION. 


mended  that  it  begin  externally  just  below  the  window-sill  and 
pass  downward  through  the  wall  to  the  bottom  of  the  radiator. 
It  matters  but  little  which  course  be  taken,  however  ;  from  above 


FIG.  104. 


SMART   A/  v 


INDIRECT  HHATING   BY  WALL  REGISTER   AND   FRESH-AIR   WALL   CONDUIT   THROUGH   OBLIQUE 

RADIATOR. 

snow,  rain,  and  dust  may  descend  much   more    likely  than  for 
any  similar  process  to  occur  from  below. 

Indirect  Radiation.     Many  forms   of  this  method   are  in  use, 


330 


HABITATIONS. 


but  the  essential  feature  of  them  all  is  to  heat  the  air  by  passing 
it  through  a  radiator  situated  elsewhere  than  in  the  room  to  be 
heated.  These  radiators  or  heaters  may  be  in  the  cellar  or  in  an 
adjoining  building,  or  immediately  under  the  apartment  to  be 


FIG.  ios. 


INDIRHCT  RADIATION. 

One  ol  the  best  rad  ators  for  the  indirect  method  of  heating  larce  buildings.       The  base  is  made  of 


cast  iron  and  tl 
through  the  sec 
tested  at  150  po 
is  set  on  brick  a 


e  pipes  of  the  best  steel.  Steam  enters  through  vertical  inlet  pipe,  passes  over 
ions  and  down  through  the  drip  pipe  or  conduit  at  the  bottom.  The  sections  are 
Hi  (Is  hydraulic  pressure,  to  insure  tight,  non-leaking  joints.  The  entire  radiator 
id  covered  externally  by  some  non-conducting  insulator,  such  as  asbestos,  mag- 


nesia covering,  or  plaster  and  brick.  A  fresh-air  inlet  flue  as  directed  for  furnaces  must  be  > 
constructed  as  to  secure  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  air.  The  heated  air  is  conducted  to  the 
rooms  above,  as  already  directed  while  considering  furnaces.  My  a  specially  constructed  mixing 
damper,  the  cuM  or  fresh  air  may  be  circuited  directly  from  the  inlet  to  the  distributing  flues  and 
any  degree  ol  heat  thereby  secured. 

heated.     The  accompanying  cuts  show  the  methods  for  locating 
the  radiator  near  the  rooms  to  be  heated. 

This  method  is  applicable  in  dwelling  houses  and  small  build- 
ings, but  not  so  useful  as  is  the  heating  of  air  on  a  much  larger 


THE    EXHAUST   SYSTEM. 


331 


scale  and  bringing  it  to  the  room  through  wall  conduits  and 
registers.  The  steam  or  hot-water  coils,  preferably  the  former, 
are  placed  in  the  cellar.  Although  many  forms  are  used,  that 
shown  in  the  illustration  meets  all  the  requirements.  So 
advantageous  is  this  method  that  enormous  buildings  are 
heated  in  this  way,  and  it  seems  applicable  to  entire  blocks,  for 
example,  supplied  from  a  central  depot.  As  air  currents  and 
the  direction  of  wind  materially  influence  the  ability  with  which 
even  heat  moves  large  bodies  of  air,  in  the  heating  of  hospitals, 
halls,  or  theaters,  etc.,  it  has  been  found  advantageous  to  force 
or  drive  the  heated  air  when  wanted.  This  is  accomplished  by 
large  fans  made  expressly  for  the  purpose.  Two  methods  are 
applied  :  (ist)  the  cxliaiist  system  ;  (2d)  the  plenum  system  : — 
(ist)  The  exhaust  system.  By  this  method  the  air  of  the 

FIG.  106. 


INDIRECT  RADIATION. 

Base  for  heater  or  radiator  shown  in  the  preceding  illustration.  A.  Inlet  pipe.  B.  Drip  pipe.  C. 
Inlet  pipe  to  a  small  section  for  use  of  fan  exhaust  where  fan  ventilation  is  used.  D.  Drip  pipe 
for  same.  E.  Ball-bearing,  to  allow  expansion  and  contraction  of  base. 

apartments  is  extracted  by  suction,  and  the  pressure  of  the  ex- 
ternal atmosphere  is  depended  upon  to  secure  the  entrance  o 
fresh  air.  This  the  method  undoubtedly  accomplishes,  but  it  as- 
sumes that  all  the  air  which  enters  the  room  comes  from  a  de- 
sirable source,  and  arrangements  are  made  for  such  entrance. 
As  the  pressure  of  the  external  atmosphere  is  universally  dis- 
tributed, air  will  enter  the  area  of  reduced  pressure  from  the 
most  accessible  point.  It  may  not,  therefore,  be  a  desirable 
source,  and  may  be  merely  the  contaminated  contents  of  an 
adjoining  apartment.  It  was  believed  that  the  exhaust  system, 
combined  with  the  direct-indirect  radiator,  would  secure  efficient 


332 


HABITATIONS. 


heating  and  ventilation,  but  subsequent  investigation  has  dis- 
proved the  assumption.  The  system  is  conducive  to  draughts 
and  partially  mixed  and  improperly  heated  currents  running 


FIG.  107. 


INI>IKKCT  RADIATOR,  showing  fan  attachment  for  propelling  the  air  from  the  radiator  to  the  dis- 
tributing system.     The  arrows  indicate  the  course  taken  by  the  air. 

direct  from  point  of  entrance  to  point  ot  exit.  The  method 
cannot  be  the  ideal,  as  it  does  not  permit  the  selection  of 
source. 


THE    PLENUM    SYSTEM. 


333 


(2d)  The  plenum  system.  This 
forces  air  into  the  room.  The  air 
is  heated  in  winter,  or  may  be  cooled 
in  summer,  and,  by  a  suitably  ar- 
ranged fan,  is  forced  into  the  room 
to  be  heated,  or  ventilated,  or  both. 
This  method  not  only  permits,  but  de- 
mands, the  selection  of  air,  and  thus 
meets  an  important  requirement.  As 
the  air  is  brought  from  a  selected 
point  and  through  specially  con- 
structed apparatus,  conduits,  etc.,  it 
may  be  filtered,  dried,  or  moistened, 
as  occasion  demands.  The  radiator 
used,  or  a  form  used  by  a  firm  doing 
a  lar^e  amount  of  this  work  and  con- 

o 

structing  nearly  all  the  fans  used  for 
the  purpose,  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration.  By  means  of  a 
short-circuiting  flue,  cold  air  is  brought 
to  the  fan  without  passing  through  the 
heater;  the  air  thus  supplied  to  the 
distributing  system  may  be  of  any  de- 
sired temperature,  the  degree  being 
obtained  or  regulated  by  a  specially 
constructed  mixing  damper.  The 
same  effect  may  be  obtained,  although 
less  effectually,  by  regulating  the 
supply  of  steam  to  the  radiator. 

Automatic  appliances  are  now  made 
for  regulating  electrically  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  room.  In  each  room  to  be 
heated  is  placed  a  contact  thermo- 
meter, either  mercurial,  as  figured  in 
thermal  disinfection,  or  metallic,  by 
either  of  which  electric  currents  are 
made  or  broken  at  the  desired  de- 
gree, which  ma}'  be  set  at  will  ;  these 


140 


THERMOSTAT  FOR  REGULATING  BY 
ELECTRICITY  THE  HEAT  SUPPLY.* 

The  small  screw  on  the  right  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  sets  the  point  of  con- 
tact at  any  desired  degree  When 
the  apartment  reaches  the  degree  the 
circuit  is  completed  and  the  heat  c  t 
off.  The  conducting  wires  are  a  - 
tached  to  the  three  screws  at  the  bo  - 
torn.  With  a  fall  of  temperature  a 
contact  point  is  made  on  the  opposi  e 
side  and  the  heat  is  readmitted.  Th  s 
process  is  so  nicely  regulated  that  n 
all  ordinary  weather  with  tempera- 
tures above  the  freezing  point  a  con- 
stant room  heat  can  be  maintained. 


For  electric  contact  mercurial  thermometer,  see  page  75. 


334  HABITATIONS. 

currents,  by  well-known  electro-mechanical  appliances,  regulate 
the  steam  or  hot-water  supply  to  the  radiator,  the  air  supply,  the 
velocity  of  the  fan,  or  the  mixing  damper,  and  thus  control  the 
temperature  of  the  room  to  within  i°  F.  of  the  desired  heat. 

In  forced  ventilation  and  heating,  such  as  described  by  the 
use  of  fans,  the  air  may  be  brought  in  through  a  comparatively 
small  inlet  at  a  high  velocity  or  through  a  large  inlet  at  a  low 
velocity.  At  a  high  velocity  it  can  be  more  rapidly  transmitted 
from  the  radiator  to  the  room,  and  hence  less  heat  is  lost  by 
wall  absorption  and  corresponding  reduction  in  the  heating 
power  of  the  incoming  air.  But  the  high  velocity  creates  cur- 
rents, draughts,  and  disagreeable  hot-air  fields  in  the  room 
atmosphere,  and  raises  the  floor  dust  and  dirt  into  the  general 
air  of  the  apartment.  These  objections  have  led  practical  manu- 
facturers and  designers  of  heating  appliances  to  introduce  the 
air  overhead  or  high  up  on  the  walls.  It  is  not  for  us  to  argue 
whether  apartments  can  be  heated  or  ventilated  after  this  method, 
for  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  they  can  be,  but  as  the  pro- 
ducts of  respiratory  and  cutaneous  activity  ascend,  the  incoming 
currents,  although  much  diluting  contaminating  air,  beat  it 
directly  downward  upon  those  from  whom  it  emanates.  Besides 
all  this,  which  is  an  apparent  scientific  objection  to  overhead  in- 
troduction of  heated  air,  the  inferior  extremities,  more  particu- 
larly the  feet,  cannot  be  kept  warm  by  this  method,  in  rooms 
where  tile,  stone,  or  metal  floors  are  used,  unless  the  overhead 
temperature  be  excessively  high.  The  ideal  method  of  introduc- 
ing the  air  into  the  room  is  through  large  washboard  registers 
having  a  very  large  outlet  or  with  specially  constructed  distribu- 
tors for  preventing  the  induction  of  currents. 

To  Estimate  Heat  Supply.  A  thermal  unit,  in  heat  calculations, 
is  the  amount  of  heat  which  will  be  required  to  raise  50  cubic 
feet  of  air  through  i°  F. 

Each  square  foot  of  radiating  surface  from  a  steam  or  hot- 
water  radiator  will  give  off  from  1.25  to  2  thermal  units  per 
hour  for  each  degree  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the 
radiator  and  that  of  the  external  or  surrounding  air. 

For  an  indirect  radiator  this  may  be  computed  as  1.75  ther- 
mal units,  while  in  direct  radiation  1.15  thermal  units  will  accom- 
plish as  much  as  the  1.75  thermal  units  by  indirect.  If,  however, 


ESTIMATION    OF    RADIATING    SURFACE.  335 

an  equal  quantity  of  fresh  air  is  supplied  in  the  two  instances, 
much  less  difference  will  be  apparent.  To  find  the  radiating 
surface  necessary  to  heat  a  given  quantity  of  air,  the  number  of 
thermal  units  is  first  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  air  to  be  heated  by  the  difference  between  the  temperature 
of  the  incoming  air  and  the  temperature  desired,  and  dividing 
the  result  by  50  ;  this  will  give  the  number  of  thermal  units  de- 
manded. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  in  square  feet 
for  either  the  direct  or  indirect  radiator  it  will  be  necessary  to 
divide  the  number  of  thermal  units  desired  by  the  difference  be- 
tween the  temperature  of  the  radiator  and  the  surrounding  air. 
The  following  somewhat  modified  example,  by  Billings,  will  illus- 
trate what  is  meant.  A  room  is  to  have  6000  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
hour  to  be  heated  from  o°  F.  to  70°  F.  by  a  direct  or  indirect  steam 
radiator  whose  temperature  is  210°  F. 

Cu.  ft.  of  air  to  be  heated  ..    /From  o°  F.  to  70°  F.  or\  Thermal  units 

6000  "    \        difference  70°  F.        /    - 


5° 
8400 

f  Temperature  ot 
radiator    minus 
temperature    of 
1        heated  air,or  210° 
F.  —  70°  F.  = 
1       HO. 

1    The     thermal    unit 
value  of  the  radia- 
tor to  be  supplied, 
|        /.  e.  ,     i  75    direct  ; 
1.15  indirect. 

f  Xo.  sq.  ft.  radiating 
surface  demanded, 
i.  £>.,  34.3  direct ; 

L       52.2  indirect. 


These  formulae  do  not  take  into  consideration  leakage,  wall 
ventilation,  or  wall  radiation.  Wall  ventilation  and  leakage 
being  such  unknown  factors,  it  is  proposed  in  the  estimates  that 
at  most  the  loss  of  heat  in  this  way  cannot  be  much  and  is  tem- 
porary in  outflow,  and  therefore  largely  controllable.  Radiation 
from  outside  walls  and  windows  is  not  controllable,  and  is 
allowed  for  by  adding  to  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  ob- 
tained by  the  above  method  one-half  square  foot  for  each  square 
foot  of  glass  or  square  yard  of  external  wall. 

Stoves  and  furnaces  are  presumed  to  produce,  for  each  square 
foot  of  heating  surface,  six  times  the  number  of  thermal  units 
available  from  steam  or  hot-water  radiators.  Fireplaces  or  open 
grates  do  not  permit  of  calculation  estimates,  as  the  heating 


336  HABITATIONS. 

capacity  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face and  but  little  upon  the  actual  consumption  of  fuel. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  know  how  much  air  the  ventilating  or 
heating  appliances  of  the  room  are  carrying,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose an  anemometer  is  used.  Of  these,  there  are  two  forms,  the 
static  and  dynamic.  The  former  consists  of  a  suspended  fan-like 
obstruction  to  the  flow  ;  the  pressure  exerted  causes  this  to  deviate 
from  the  perpendicular,  the  deviation  being  registered  upon  a  dial, 
or  arc,  attached  for  the  purpose.  They  really  do  not  give  the 
velocity,  but  the  pressure,  and  from  this  the  velocity  is  estimated 
by  experiment  or  comparison  with  a  dynamic  anemometer. 

FIG.  109. 


DYNAMIC  ANBMOMBTBK. 

On  the  left  is  seen  the  gear  catch.  The  instrument  is  so  placed  that  the  wheel  on  the  right  directly 
faces  the  current  of  air  to  be  measured.  The  turbine-like  wheel  is  allowed  to  run  with  the  gear 
catch  turned  off  until  its  velocity  is  apparently  constant;  in  the  meantime  a  reading  is  made  of 
the  anemometer  and  this  is  recorded  ;  when  everything  is  in  readiness,  the  gear  catch  is  thrown 
on  and  the  appliance  allowed  to  register  for  exactly  a  minute  (or  any  definite  length  of  time), 
the  gear  catch  turned  off,  and  the  dials  are  again  read.  The  difference  between  the  last  two 
readings  is,  of  course,  a  record  of  the  intervening  time.  Corrections  for  error  and  friction  must  be 
made,  and  the  result  is  known  as  final  corrected  reading. 

The  dynamic  anemometer  is  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  currents.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the 
essential  features  of  the  modern  instrument.  A  reading  is  made 
from  several  points  of  the  inlet  or  outlet,  other  avenues  being 
closed.  The  velocity  being  obtained,  if  we  multiply  it  by  the 
area,  we  have  the  amount  of  air  which  a  room  receives,  and  by 
knowing  the  cubic  space  of  the  apartment  we  may  know  if  the 
air  is  changing  sufficiently  often,  or  if  the  room  is  to  be  occu- 


FIG.  no. 


On  left,  wet-bulb  thermometer  ;  on 
right,  dry-bull)  thermometer.  In 
the  center  will  be  seen  two  columns 
of  figures,  a  larger  one  on  the  left, 
and  a  smaller  one  on  the  right  ;  the 
latter  is  printed  upon  a  cylinder 
which  can  be  rotated  by  means  of 
the  milled  thumb-screw  at  the  top. 

To  use  the  instrument :  Read  the  dry- 
bulb  thermometer,  and  then  the 
wet-bulb  thermometer,  and  find  the 
difference  between  the  two  readings. 
Then  slowly  rotate  the  cylinder  by 
turning  the  thumb-screw  at  the  top, 
until  the  extreme  upper  figure  on 
the  rotating  columns  is  the  same  as 
the  number  of  degrees  difference 
between  the  dry-  and  moist-bulb 
thermometers  ;  for  convenience,  in 
some  of  the  instruments  this  row  of 
figures,  the  top  row,  is  printed  red. 
When  the  proper  figure  is  in  place, 
look  down  the  left-hand  column 
until  the  figure  corresponding  to  the 
temperature,  as  recorded  by  the 
dry-bulb  thermometer,  is  found, 
when  immediately  adjoining  this, 
on  the  movable  slip,  will  be  found 
the  relative  humidity.  For  exam- 
ple :  As  the  instrument  now  stands, 
the  dry  bulb  reads  155°  F.,  and  the 
wet  bulb  130°  F.,  difference  25°  F. 
The  rotating  cylinder  has  been 
turned  until  the  figure  25  comes  in 
view  at  the  top  :  looking  down  the 
columns,  we  find  that  opposite  150 
in  the  left-hand  column  is  53,  and 
opposite  160  is  54,  therefore  the 
approximate  reading  is  53.5  relative 
humidity. 


HYGROPHANT. 


338  HABITATIONS. 

pied  we  can  calculate  the  number  of  people  which  the  given  air 
supply  will  meet. 

The  direction  of  air-flow,  where  there  be  currents  too  weak 
for  ordinary  recording  instruments,  may  be  indicated  by  watch- 
ing smoke  generated  from  tobacco,  burning  old  cotton,  velvet, 
or  the  slow  explosion  of  a  moistened  particle  of  gunpowder,  or 
other  devices  which  may  be  made  to  produce  a  small  quantity 
of  heat  and  considerable  smoke.  Where  obtainable,  the  "  thistle- 
down" is  most  delicate  in  its  current  reaction.  In  chimneys, 
flues,  or  other  appliances  of  great  height,  the  length  of  which  is 
known,  the  velocity  of  the  air  traveling  through  them  may  be 
roughly  estimated  by  noting  the  time  which  will  be  occupied  by 
a  small  puff  of  powder  smoke  passing  from  the  base  to  the  top. 
By  knowing  the  velocity  and  square  sectional  area,  the  amount 
of  air  passing  through  the  flue  may  be  readily  calculated  from 
the  following  formula  : — 

Velocity  per  second  X  area  'n  square  feet  =  Quantity  per  second  in  cubic  feet. 

The  quantity  of  moisture  in  the  heated  air  is  a  vastly  import- 
ant consideration.  The  methods  available  for  determining  this 
point  are  given  under  climate  and  air,  but  a  cut  of  the  hygro- 
phant  is  here  inserted,  as  it  is  believed  to  be  the  most  generally 
applicable  instrument.  By  it  but  little  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  keeping  a  constant  record  of  the  condition  of  the  atmospheric 
moisture. 

Dry  airs  are  moistened  by  the  addition  of  steam  ;  in  steam 
and  hot-water  systems  this  is  readily  accomplished  ;  in  fur- 
naces it  may  be  partly  brought  about  by  a  water  chamber  in 
the  radiating  box,  or  wet  gauze  screens  or  cloths  or  sponges 
are  hung  in  front  of  the  register  and  moisture  thus  obtained. 
The  difficulty  of  this  method  is  the  reduction  of  temperature 
which  occurs  from  the  evaporation  of  the  water.  But  few  other 
methods  are  as  good  and  none  so  simple.  Stoves  are  very  con- 
stantly supplied  with  water  pans  for  this  use. 

LIGHTING. 

When  the  light  used  is  daylight,  no  matter  how  circuitous  the 
route  by  which  it  is  brought  to  the  point  of  use,  the  process  is 
spoken  of  as  natural  illumination. 


LIGHTING.  339 

The  best  light,  the  smoothest,  most  constant,  least  glaring,  is 
obtained  from  the  reflected  rays,  rather  than  the  direct  rays ; 
such  a  light,  north  of  the  equator,  is  for  the  most  of  the  year 
northern  light ;  south  of  the  torrid  /one,  the  reverse  is,  of  course, 
the  case.  As  it  is  necessary  to  exclude  rain  and  cold,  and  at 
the  same  time  admit  light,  glass  is  used.  The  window  space  of 
a  room  should  always  exceed  one-tenth  of  the  floor  space,  this 
exclusive  of  sash  and  frames.  Of  the  kinds  of  glass  used,  com- 
mon flint  or  crown  plate  or  stained  glass,  the  plate  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. It  is  free  from  defects,  a  most  important  consideration; 
where  direct  sunlight  is  to  play  upon  a  window,  it  is  best  met 
by  ground  glass,  /.  c.,  glass  in  which  the  polish  or  glaze  is  re- 
moved from  one  side.  This  softens  the  light,  and  equalizes  it  at 
all  points.  It  is  important  that  the  glass  be  free  from  all  imper- 
fections, such  as  knots,  blisters,  and  waves,  and  the  glazier  di- 
rected to  have  all  panes  properly  back-puttied  and  bradtled,  to 
make  them  firm  and  prevent  rattling.  Leaded  glass  is  not  to 
be  advised,  as  the  weird,  shadowy  lines  cast  over  the  room  must, 
of  necessity,  require  an  uncalled-for  eyestrain. 

Since  the  introduction  of  stained  glass,  every  conceivable 
color  has  been  used.  The  multiplicity  of  colors  used  militates 
against  the  entire  system,  and  brings  it  into  disrepute  when  it 
should  be  most  used. 

Leaded  glass  maybe  used  for  the  upper  lights,  and  for  this, 
if  an  ornamental  glass  is  desired,  the  use  of  a  mild  green,  and 
what  is  known  as  a  sunlight  gold,  may  be  recommended  for  out- 
side ribbon  or  border  lines,  with  the  body  in  white.  This  has  a 
charming  effect,  and  will  not  produce  rainbow  prismatic  lines, 
which  must  be  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  eyes.  White  glass, 
not  clear,  but  cloudy,  offers  many  advantages  where  large  win- 
dows are  used.  It  softens  the  direct  rays,  and  checks  the  glar- 
ing reflections,  so  commonly  the  source  of  annoyance  to  school- 
children. 

When  rooms  are  lighted  by  a  well,  as  it  is  known  in  archi- 
tecture, the  sides  of  this  structure  should  be  of  glazed  yellow 
brick,  or  polished  stone  or  marble,  never  opaque  dead  colors, 
like  red  brick  or  unpolished  sand-stone.  Sand-stone,  more  es- 
pecially the  darker  colors  and  softer  grains,  is  so  light-absorb- 
ing as  to  make  the  well  which  it  surrounds  dark  and  gloomy. 


34O  HABITATIONS. 

The  lower  rooms  of  such  a  well,  or  along  a  narrow  alley,  may 
have  additional  light  given  them  by  mirrors,  or  reflectors,  hung 
from  the  outside,  so  as  to  secure  reflection  of  the  skylight  rays 
in  their  direct  descent,  and  through  them  upon  the  ceiling  of 
the  dark  rooms.  This  method  has  in  a  few  cases  been  made  to 
work  well,  but  is  of  doubtful  efficiency,  and  lessens  ventilation, 
and  probably  wall  radiation. 

Artificial  Liglits.  These  arise  from  combustion  or  incan- 
descence, or  both  combined.  The  electric  incandescent  light 
offers  all  that  could  be  desired  in  artificial  light,  although,  strange 
to  say,  it  does  not  support  vegetation  as  does  the  arc  light.* 

In  stores  it  has  been  found  that  the  arc  light  kept  certain  of 
the  employees  constantly  suffering  from  complementary  color 
images,  which  so  annoyed  them  as  to  require  a  change  of  light. 

Of  oil  and  gas  illumination,  it  may  be  said  that  the  character 
of  light  produced  is  better  from  the  oil  than  gas,  as  ordinarily 
sold  to  the  consumer.  Ventilating  gas  fixtures  are  now  largely 
used.  A  room  is  lighted  by  a  large  central  chandelier,  immedi- 
ately over  which,  or  around  its  supply  pipe,  a  vent  is  so  arranged 
that  the  heated  air,  rising  from  the  burners,  is  carried  off  through 
a  ceiling  conduit.  This  not  only  aids  in  securing  ventilation, 
but  prevents  the  convection  of  heat,  which,  in  the  summer 
months,  may  disagreeably  superheat  the  room.  There  is  no 
reason  for  not  constructing  oil  brackets  on  the  same  principle. 

The  air  contamination  produced  by  artificial  lighting  is  else- 
where considered,  as  are  also  the  requirements  for  satisfactory 
lighting.  (See  page  93.) 

WATER-CLOSET   SYSTEMS. 

One  of  the  greatest  menaces  to  health  is  the  vitiation  of  the 
air  in  a  house  by  the  escape  of  foul  gases  through  the  water- 
closets.  That  this  danger  may  be  obviated  too  great  a  circum- 
spection in  the  selection  of  a  closet  cannot  be  observed.  In  the 
choice  of  a  closet  at  least  three  requisites  should  be  demanded: 
1st,  efficiency  ;  2d,  simplicity  ;  3d,  economy. 

*  Recent  experiments  with  lights  show  that  the  pigmentation  on  the  dorsal  sur- 
face of  fish  can  be  made  to  develop  on  the  ventral  aspect  if  the  fish  l>e  kept  in  a 
tank,  with  the  top  and  sides  blackened  and  arc-light  illumination  secured  from  the 
bottom.  No  other  light  would  give  the  same  effect. 


PAN    CLOSETS.  34! 

A  closet  system  to  be  efficient  should  be  so  constructed  that 
no  means  for  the  lodgment  of  excrement  in  the  hopper  shall  be 
offered  ;  that  the  excrement  may  be  readily  washed  into  the  soil 
pipe ;  that  the  flush  shall  be  of  such  volume  and  force  as  to 
thoroughly  wash  every  part  of  the  hopper  exposed  to  contact 
with  the  excrement ;  that  the  plumbing  shall  be  first-class  and 
all  connections  carefully  effected  ;  that  the  trap  be  tight  and 
provided  with  an  antisiphonage  and  ventilating  shaft ;  and  that 
every  facility  be  afforded  for  maintaining  the  cleanliness  of  the 
hopper  and  its  surroundings.  That  rigid  simplicity,  as  far  as  is 
compatible  with  efficiency,  should  be  insisted  upon  is  too  palp- 
able to  demand  discussion,  for  it  must  be  evident  to  all  that 
unnecessary  complications  and  "  niceties  "  in  closet  systems  too 
frequently  lead  to  serious  consequences  and  considerable  ex- 
pense in  keeping  them  in  repair. 

Within  recent  years  the  construction  of  water-closets  has  been 
reduced  to  a  scientific  basis,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  progres- 
sive improvements  made  in  this  line  are  little  short  of  the  marvel- 
ous. There  are,  however,  in  old  houses,  quite  a  number  of  what 
are  known  as  pan  closets,  valve  closets,  and  long  hopper  closets. 

These  closets,  having  so  many  grave  faults  and  nothing  what- 
ever to  commend  them,  should  be  considered  by  all  sanitarians 
and  physicians  as  one  of  the  great  evils  for  which  they  must 
ever  be  on  the  alert  to  detect  and  combat. 

It  is,  probably,  expedient  that  we  should  point  out  the  defects 
in  the  above-mentioned  closets,  that  their  merited  condemnation 
shall  be  just  and  ample. 

Pan  closets  consist  of  a  hopper,  the  lower  end  being  closed  by 
a  pan  containing  water.  Into  this  pan  the  excrements  are  re- 
ceived, from  whence  they  are  projected  into  the  container  by 
raising  a  lever  and  dropping  the  pan. 

Beneath  the  hopper  is  a  large  bowl,  the  container,  through 
which  the  excrements  pass  into  a  D-trap.  The  D-trap  is  placed 
between  the  container  and  soil  pipe,  with  the  object  of  preventing 
an  escape  of  sewer  gas  into  the  house. 

It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  flush  in  old,  unaltered  pan  closets 
is  never  sufficient,  and  such  being  the  case,  feces  are  sure  to  be 
deposited,  as  instanced  in  the  pan  usually  becoming  encrusted, 
the  lower  portion  of  the  hopper  and  container  foul  and  filth}-. 


342  HABITATIONS. 

As  usually  constructed  it  is  almost  impossible  to  ventilate  a  pan 
closet  or  to  prevent  the  siphonage  of  the  traps  ;  hence  the  es- 
cape of  foul  sewer  gas  into  the  house.  As  the  flush  is  insuf- 
ficient to  thoroughly  wash  out  the  container,  we  have  here  an 
accumulation  of  feces,  paper,  etc.  The  gases  emanating  from  a 
container  in  such  a  condition,  when  added  to  the  escaping  sewer 
gas,  render  the  vitiating  air  doubly  potent  and  offensive.  A  D- 
trap  cannot  under  any  circumstances  be  recommended,  but 
when,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  pan  closets,  they  are  made 
of  lead,  they  become  a  great  source  of  danger,  as  the  chemical 
reaction  set  up  between  the  excrements  and  the  lead  ultimately 
leads  to  perforation  of  the  trap. 

Occasionally  it  happens  that  we  see  a  pan  closet  which  is  ven- 
tilated by  carrying  a  pipe  from  the  container  to  the  vent  pipe ; 
further,  they  are  provided  with  flush  tank,  which  gives  an  ample 
supply  of  water,  and  the  old  D-trap  replaced  by  a  siphon  trap. 

In  such  instances  these  alterations  were  only  completed  years 
after  the  pan  system  had  been  in  operation,  and  when  the  in- 
mates of  the  house  had  become  aware  of  the  truly  pernicious 
character  of  the  system,  and  were  anxious  to  adopt  any  plan 
by  which  the  evil  might  be  miti'gated. 

Valve  Closets.  Having,  at  some  length,  set  forth  the  objec- 
tional  features  of  the  pan  closet,  but  little  needs  to  be  said  in 
regard  to  the  valve  closet,  as  it  is  but  a  modified,  though  but 
little  improved,  form  of  the  pan  variety. 

In  this,  the  valve  variety,  a  flat  iron  plate — the  valve — sup- 
plants the  pan  ;  and  the  the  container  is  somewhat  smaller,  other- 
wise they  are  practically  the  same. 

The  long  hopper  closet  has  a  long,  narrow,  conical  hopper, 
opening  into  an  S-trap.  As  usually  constructed,  the  trap  is  un- 
provided with  an  antisiphonage  and  ventilating  shaft,  the  flush 
is  inadequate,  and  the  connections  are  bad.  In  addition  to  all 
this,  the  excrement  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  hopper,  which  is 
almost  without  exception  in  a  filthy  condition. 

Enclosed  Closets.  There  is,  usually,  one  great  evil  associated 
with  all  three  of  the  foregoing  water-closets,  and  that  is,  they  are 
enclosed. 

The  enclosures  surrounding  water-closets,  more  particularly 
in  old  houses,  are  the  depositories  and  conservators  of  all  kinds 


ENCLOSED    CLOSETS. 


343 


and  manner  of  dust  and  dirt.  Seldom  is  it  that  any  arrange- 
ments whatever  are  made  to  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the  en- 
closed spaces. 

When  enclosed  closets  are  now  placed  in  dwellings,  they  are 
so  constructed  that  they  may  be  cleaned  out ;  as  they  offer  an 
effectual  hiding  place  for  dirt,  careless  housekeepers,  and  nearly 


FIG.  ni. 


ENCLOSED  WATER-CLOSET,  showing  the  hinged  panel  in   ront  and  the  hinged  seat,  affording  facili- 
ties for  cleaning. 

all  hired  help,  are  sure   to  avail  themselves  of  so  convenient  a 
depository.     See  Fig  1 1 1. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  not  difficult  to  obtain  a  most  excel- 
lent closet,  though  to  say  which  make  or  variety  is  the  best  is 
almost  impossible,  as  the  manufacturers  have  devoted  so  much 
time  and  study  in  bringing  them  to  perfection. 


HABITATIONS. 

The  "was/i  doivn"  is  one  that  may  be  used  in  ordinary  houses, 
where  there  is  a  strict  limitation  to  the  bill  of  expenses.  It  is 
in  form  a  short  hopper,  and,  being  in  one  piece  of  earthenware 
and  with  an  easy  bend,  permits  of  easy  cleaning,  and  can  be 
used  for  an  outside  as  well  as  inside  water-closet. 

The  "  Dcceco  "  is  best  described  as  having  a  high  ascending 
arm,  which  permits  of  the  water  standing  high  in  the  basin,  and 
thus  exposes  at  all  times  a  good  flow  of  water. 

Siphon  action  is   caused  by  rapid   inflow  of  water  from  the 

FIG.  ii2. 


HACK  OF  "  Svriio  "  CLOSET,  showing  coil  or  trapped  supply,  A,  leading  to  port,  B,  in  dome  01 

siphon. 

supply  cistern,  and  by  the  rapid  withdrawal  or  outflow  of  water 
the  excreta  is  quickly  removed. 

The  "  Bcckman  Salutary  System"  consists  of  a  whirlpool 
closet  and  "  Duplex  "  tank,  and  for  this  it  is  claimed  that  thetwo 
condicnts,  which  extend  to  the  right  and  left,  are  so  arranged  as 
to  spread  a  fan-like  movement  of  water,  which,  spreading  to  the 
center,  forms  a  whirlpool  of  great  force,  which  sweeps  out  the  ex- 
creta and  renders  it  impossible  for  any  material  to  be  left  in  the 
basin.  This  action  is  good,  and  may  well  be  recommended. 


"IMPROVED  SYPHO  "  CLOSET. 


345 


The  "  Improved  Syf>/io  "  water  closet  is  of  an  improved  class, 
which  commends  itself  from  its  action  and  simple  operation. 

The  authors  are  quite  familiar  with  this  closet  and  highly  ap- 
prove it.  The  bowl  when  at  rest  contains  a  large  volume  of 
water,  which  forms  a  trap  of  such  unusual  depth  as  to  preclude 
the  possibility  of  siphonic  action  breaking  the  seal.  The  seal  is 
so  perfect  as  to  effectually  prevent  the  passage  of  sewer  gas  into 
the  house. 

Other  advantages  of  this  closet  are  that  it  acts  promptly,  with 
great  force,  and  is  almost  noiseless. 

FIG.  113. 


SECTION  OF  ''  SYPHO  "  CLOSET,  showing  standing  water  in  bowl,  and  the  opening  through  which 


the  supply  reaches  the  Hushing  rim,  also  coil  or  trapped  supply  to  long  limb  of  siphon. 


In  opening  the  valve  in  the  tank,  water  flows  simultaneously 
to  the  bowl  and  through  the  coil,  A  (Fig.  1 12),  to  port,  !->,  in  the 
dome  of  siphon.  The  water  which  passed  through  the  port,  B, 
quickly  dispels  the  air  from  the  long  limb  of  the  siphon,  creating 
a  powerful  siphonic  action,  withdrawing  the  contents  of  the  bowl, 
which  is  driven  toward  and  into  the  neck  or  outlet  by  the  force 
of  water  from  the  flushing  rim.  After  the  discharge  ceases  a 


346  HABITATIONS. 

diminished  flow  of  water  from  the  tank  through  the  flush   rim 
refills  the  bowl. 

The  small  trapped  water-way  shown  in  Fig.  112  will  be 
easily  understood  by  first  noting  its  course  ;  it  will  be  seen  to 
pass  from  the  point  where  the  flush  line  attaches,  down  one 
side  of  the  closet,  thence  between  the  limbs,  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines  to  the  opposite  side,  and  extending  upward, 
terminates  in  the  port,  B,  which  discharges  into  the  long  limb  of 
siphon. 

Trough  Closet.  In  large  cities  with  ample  water  supply  and 
good  facilities  for  handling  sewage,  trough  closets  are  used  in 
public  buildings,  schools,  manufactories,  and  other  large  establish- 
ments where  many  people  congregate  daily.  This  form  of  closet 
may  be  considered  as  a  series  of  washout  closets,  though  it  has 
but  a  single  bowl  and  flush.  The  trough,  usually  of  stoneware 
and  without  any  projection  from  its  interior  surface  except  at  the 
outlet,  is  placed  beneath  a  series  of  compartments,  each  of  which 
has  an  opening  into  it.  The  trough  is  set  in  a  manner  so  as  to 
slightly  incline  toward  the  outlet,  where  the  floor  forms  a  weir  by 
projecting  upward.  The  object  of  the  weir  is  to  always  retain 
within  the  trough  a  quantity  of  water  that  will  prevent  feces  ad- 
hering to  the  surface.  The  upper  end  of  the  trough  should  al- 
ways be  connected  with  an  automatic  flush  tank  of  ample 
capacity.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  trough  should  be  placed  an 
iron  grid  with  the  bars  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  passage  of 
ordinary  matter,  yet  close  enough  to  intercept  all  large  and  im- 
proper bodies.  The  closet  should  be  disconnected  from  the 
drain  pipe  by  an  S-  or  siphon-trap.  If  the  closet  be  within  the 
building,  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a  free  circulation  of  air, 
and  with  such  precautions  as  to  prevent  the  air  passing  through 
this  compartment  gaining  ingress  to  other  portions  of  the  build- 
ing. 

When  the  closet  is  enclosed  in  a  special  compartment  at  sonic 
little  distance  from  the  main  building,  ventilation  may  be  ac- 
complished by  carrying  a  shaft,  with  a  slight  incline,  from  the 
trough  to  outside  the  building  and  then  directly  upward  several 
feet  above  the  roof. 

The  compartment  may  be  ventilated  by  a  small  shaft  extending 
from  the  highest  point  within  to  a  couple  of  feet  above  the  roof. 


URINALS.  347 

Urinals. 

These  are  conveniences  usually  found  in  railway  stations  and 
other  large  buildings  frequented  by  many  people  in  the  course 
of  a  day.  Nothing  ever  devised  to  cater  to  the  factitious  de- 
mands of  civilization  has  given  rise  to  one-half  the  nuisance  as 
urinals.  However,  that  such  contrivances,  from  the  present  con- 
dition of  society,  have  come  to  be  a  necessity  in  the  business  por- 
tion of  large  cities  is  attested  by  the  frequent  uses  made  of  them. 
Whenever  or  wherever  urinals  are  to  be  constructed,  great  cir- 
cumspection should  be  observed  in  selecting  the  very  best  form 
attainable,  and,  further,  the  site  selected  for  them  should  afford 
the  very  best  facilities  for  lighting  and  ventilation.  Urinals 
should  never  be  situated  in  dark,  damp,  out-of-the-way  corners. 
The  most  essential  feature  of  a  good  urinal  is  a  copious 
flush;  without  this  all  urinals,  whatever  may  be  their  merits, 
are  bad  and  certain  to  give  rise  to  great  nuisance.  The  best 
form  of  flush  tank  for  this  purpose  is  one  that  acts  automati- 
cally;  and  it  should  be  so  set  that  flushes  take  place  every  few 
minutes.  Another  excellent  form,  though  somewhat  more  com- 
plicated, is  set  in  operation  by  the  person  using  the  urinal  stand- 
ing on  a  treadle  connected  by  means  of  a  lever  with  the  valve  of 
the  tank. 

A  good  urinal  will  be  situated  in  a  well-lighted,  well-ventilated 
compartment  with  non-porous  floor  and  walls.  The  urinal  will 
consist  of  basins,  stoneware  or  porcelain  lined,  each  having 
a  separate  waste  pipe  and  well-ventilated  siphon  trap.  The 
main  waste  pipe,  into  which  the  waste  pipes  from  the  basins 
empty,  should  not  pass  directly  into  the  drain,  but  discharge 
into  a  gulley  trap. 

The  slate-back  urinals  without  basins,  so  frequently  met 
with,  are  one  of  the  most  atrocious  offenses  against  health  and 
decency  sanctioned  or  tolerated  by  the  Health  Officers  of  our  day. 

To  destroy  the  offensive  odors  many  methods  are  resorted  to, 
the  detail  of  which  space  will  not  permit  us  to  discuss.  There  is, 
however,  one  so  simple  and  efficient  as  to  merit  attention  :  Take 
a  cake  of  coke  or  charcoal,  saturate  it  with  sulphurous  acid,  and 
place  it  in  the  basin  ;  the  acid  should  be  renewed  two  or  three 
times  each  week.  Ammoniacal  and  other  odors  are  thoroughly 
and  quickly  destroyed. 


348  HABITATIONS. 

Flush  Tanks  and  Cisterns. 

With  our  present  system  of  having  special  cisterns  for  supply- 
ing the  water-closet  with  a  good  flush  of  water,  many  of  the 
old  evils  have  been  eliminated.  Nothing  could  be  worse  than 
the  sunk  dish  set  in  the  seat  for  the  pull-up  handle,  as  this 
permits  not  only  dust  and  water  to  collect  beneath  the  seat,  but 
the  handle  and  rod  in  time  become  loosened,  and,  in  pulling 
up,  cause  the  water  to  be  sprayed.  The  system  of  the  over- 
head cistern  or  water  tank  is  now  brought  down  to  a  basis 
wherein  a  regulator  for  the  discharge  of  two  or  eight  gallons  of 
water  can  be  used  in  one  discharge. 

In  London  and  Liverpool  the  supply  is  regulated  to  two 
gallons  to  every  flush.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  sufficient 
for  all  ordinary  closets.  Therefore,  whenever  possible,  it  is  ad- 
visable in  setting  the  cistern  to  allow  of  a  water  flush  or  flow  of 
not  less  than  three  gallons.  And  this  would  be  all-sufficient 
to  guarantee  a  properly  constructed  bowl  being  freed  from 
excreta. 

There  are  two  classes  of  flush  tanks  which  demand  considera- 
tion, the  automatic  and  non-automatic. 

Of  automatic  flu  si i  tanks  we  have  two  varieties,  the  "  tumblers  " 
and  the  "  siphons." 

The  "  tumblers  "  are  tanks  varying  in  capacity  according  to 
the  requirements.  The  tanks,  scuttle-shaped,  are  balanced  upon 
pinions  projecting  from  near  the  center  of  opposite  sides.  When 
empty  or  during  the  process  of  filling  they  maintain  an  upright 
position  ;  but  when  filled  their  equilibrium  is  overcome  and  they 
tilt  forward,  discharging  the  water.  After  discharging  its  con- 
tents, the  posterior  portion  of  the  tank  becomes  the  heavier,  and 
the  tank  swings  back,  again  resuming  the  upright  position. 

'I  his  action  continues  unceasingly  if  water  be  supplied.  The 
rate  of  discharge  can  easily  be  controlled  by  regulating  the 
inflow. 

The  mechanism  in  this  form  of  flush  tank  is  exceedingly 
simple,  is  readily  controlled,  and,  in  case  of  break,  easily  re- 
paired. The  authors  know  of  a  large  manufacturing  establish- 
ment in  which,  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  this  system  of  flushing 
has  been  in  operation,  and  it  has  given  the  greatest  satisfac- 
tion. 


AUTOMATIC    FLUSH    TANKS. 


349 


Automatic  siphon  traps  arc  in  more  general  use  than  the 
above  ;  but  that  they  deserve  to  be  we  cannot  admit,  as  they  are 
not  so  simple  in  mechanism,  so  easily  controlled,  or,  in  case  of 
breaks,  so  readily  repaired. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  this  variety  consists  of  a  large 
reservoir,  into  which  the  water  flows  from  the  main  supply.  A 
smaller  chamber  is  situated  beneath  and  at  one  corner  of  the 
large  chamber.  The  two  are  connected  by  a  hollow  cylinder  of 
iron,  the  long  limb  of  the  siphon  extending  from  near  the  bottom 
of  the  smaller  chamber  to  near  the  top  of  the  larger  ;  this  cylin- 
der is  surrounded  by  a  metallic  jacket,  which  extends  from  near 

FIG.  114. 


SHOWING  INTERIOR  OF  AN  OKDINAEY  FLUSH  TANK. 


the  bottom  of  the  large  tank  to  immediately  above  the  upper  end 
of  the  cylinder.  The  jacket  is  closed  at  the  top,  thus  forming 
the  other  limb  of  the  siphon. 

Connected  with  the  middle  third  of  the  smaller  chamber  is  the 
pipe  leading  to  the  closet,  and  up  to  this  point  the  lower  cham- 
ber is  filled  with  water.  The  water  in  the  lower  chamber  closes 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  long  limb  of  the  siphon.  As  the 
water  in  the  larger  chamber  overflows  into  the  long  limb  of  the 
siphon,  the  water  in  the  smaller  chamber  flows  into  the  closet 
pipe,  and  thus  is  inaugurated  the  siphonic  action,  which,  if  all 
things  are  in  good  working  order,  siphons  nearlv  all  the  water 

O  O  O  1  4 


350 


HABITATIONS. 


out  of  the  larger  tank.  The  frequency  with  which  this  flushing 
occurs  depends  upon  the  rate  of  the  supply. 

Other  systems  more  complicated  in  their  mechanism  have 
been  devised,  but  as  the  simpler  ones  are  equally  efficient  they 
are  to  be  preferred. 

Non-automatic  flnsli  tanks  are  all  constructed  upon  the  lever 
and  valve  principle.  They  consist  essentially  of  a  tank  of  sev- 
eral gallons  capacity.  The  communication  between  the  tank 


FIG.  115. 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  FLUSH  TANK,  showing  time  valve,  overflow,  supply  pipe,  ami  valve  connected 
with  floating  copper  ball,  and  chain  pull  and  lever. 

and  the  flushing  pipe  is  closed  by  a  valve.  The  short  arm  of  a 
lever  is  attached  to  the  valve,  while  to  the  long  arm,  projecting 
slightly  over  the  edge  of  the  tank,  is  attached  a  chain  pull.  By 
drawing  upon  the  chain  pull  the  valve  is  raised  and  the  water 
rushes  from  the  tank. 

The  inflow  is  controlled  by  a  valve  and  floating  copper  ball. 
As  can  be  seen  in  the  illustration,  the  copper  ball  is  attached  to 
one  extremity  of  an  iron  rod,  while  at  the  other  extremity  of  the 
rod  connection  is  made  with  the  valve. 


NON-AUTOMATIC    FLUSH    TANKS. 


351 


When  the  tank  fills  with  water  the  ball  floats  high,  raises  the 
rod,  and  closes  the  valve,  thus  shutting  off  the  water. 

Nearly  all  flushing  tanks,  by  some  mechanism  peculiar  to 
themselves,  provide  for  an  after-flush,  just  sufficient  to  fill  the 
bowl  of  the  closet  to  a  proper  level. 

In  many  flushing  tanks,  when  the  valve  is  displaced,  all  the 
water  within  flows  out;  but  in  others  the  volume  of  the  flush  is 
regulated  by  what  is  known  as  a  time  valve,  so  that  any  quantity, 
from  one  gallon  to  the  entire  contents  of  the  tank,  may  be  dis- 
charged at  will. 


FIG.  116. 


INTERIOR  VIKW  OF  DOIIHLE  CIIAMIIEK  FLUSH  TANK.  The  space  between  the  two  chambers  is 
filled  with  water  by  lifting  the  large  valve  into  the  upper  chamber,  securing  a  good  flush  to  the 
closet  and  a  slow  afterfill  for  both  trap  and  pool.  A  A,  simple  cutting  down  of  inner  chamber 
to  provide  for  overflow.  The  inner  tank  is  entirely  separate  from  the  outer  one,  and  can  easily 
be  lifted  out  and  cleaned. 

The  time  valve  shown  in  Fig.  115  is  a  simple  and  very  ingen- 
ious device,  and  merits  description. 

The  volume  of  the  discharge  is  dependent  upon  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  valve  to  close  after  being  opened  by  pulling  down 
upon  the  chain  pull. 

The  retard  action  of  the  valve  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
an  inverted  chamber,  in  which  is  fitted  a  brass  stem  with  cup 
leather  packing.  When  the  valve  is  closing  water  passes  into 
this  chamber  through  a  small  water-way.  The  sixe  of  the  orifice 


352  HABITATIONS. 

in  the  water-way  is  controlled  by  a  small  regulating  valve.    As 

the  valve   cannot    close    until   the 

FIG.  117. 

(______ ,, <,          chamber    is    refilled    with    water, 

^sr*  then  the  smaller  the  orifice  in  the 
water-way  the  longer  will  be  the 
time  required  for  the  chamber  to  fill  and 
the  valve  to  close.  The  greater  the  retard- 
ation in  the  closing  of  the  valve,  the 
greater  will  be  the  volume  of  water  dis- 
charged from  the  tank. 

Each  time  the  valve  is  opened  the  stem 
and  cup  leather  is  drawn  up  into  the  cham- 
ber, expelling  all  water  therefrom. 

To  prevent  the  water-way  becoming 
clogged,  each  time  the  valve  is  opened  a 
certain  quantity  of  the  contents  of  the 
chamber  is  forcibly  expelled  through  it. 

Flushing  Pipes  connect  the  tank  with 
the  closet,  and  the  one  in  the  illustration 
is  known  as  the  "  Perfection." 

The  advantage  of  this  form  is  that  it 
may  be  exposed  ;  it  has  adjustable  con- 
nections that  it  may  be  adapted  to  any 
style  closet  and  cistern,  and  that  the  lo\ver 
joint  is  flexible,  thereby  precluding  to  a 
great  extent  the  breaking  of  the  bowl 
or  connection,  as  frequently  happens  dur- 
ing the  settling  of  the  building,  or  from 
the  contraction  and  expansion  incident  to 
changes  in  temperature,  when  the  ordinary 
pipes  are  used. 

Slop  Water  for  Flushing  Pur- 
poses. Slop  water  is  often  used 
as  a  flush  for  the  old  hopper 
closets,  and  the  methods  giving  the 
best  results  are  those  of  Duckett 
and  Allen. 

Dnckctt's  Closet.  The  closet  is 
situated  some  little  distance  from 


ALLEN S  CLOSET — TRAPS.  353 

the  house.  The  opening  in  the  seat  is  placed  well  forward, 
and  the  pan  connecting  it  with  the  trap  of  the  drain  inclines 
slightly  backward  to  prevent  the  excrement  in  its  passage  foul- 
ing the  surfaces.  Interposed  between  the  pan  and  trap  is  a 
chamber  having  in  the  floor  an  annular  groove  encircling  th'e 
opening  leading  into  the  trap.  Into  this  chamber  disembogues 
the  waste  pipe  from  the  sink;  and  the  annular  groove  in  the 
floor  always  retains  a  certain  quantity  of  water.  The  chamber 
is  disconnected  from  the  drain  by  a  siphon  trap.  The  waste  pipe 
from  the  sink  opens  into  a  gully  trap  situated  just  without  the 
house;  and  the  gully  trap  discharges  into  a  tilting  vessel  or 
tumbler  similar  to  that  described  on  page  348,  but  having  a 
capacity  of  about  three  and  one-half  gallons.  When  the 
tumbler  becomes  filled  its  contents  are  suddenly  ejected  into 
the  drain  leading  to  the  chamber.  And  thus  we  have  an  auto- 
matic flush,  the  frequency  of  its  action  depending  upon  the 
volume  of  the  influx;  or,  in  other  words,  the  quantity  of  waste 
water  thrown  into  the  sink. 

Allen  s  Closet  is  based  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  preced- 
ing, but  differs  in  the  manner  of  connecting  with  the  drain  or 
sewer.  In  this  system  several  closets  may  be  connected  with 
the  drain  or  sewer,  though  upon  each  premise  there  should  be  a 
tumbler,  so  as  to  provide  for  an  adequate  flush.  An  open-cover 
manhole  with  siphon  trap  should  be  placed  at  the  entrance  of 
the  drain  into  the  sewer.  The  drains  should  be  ventilated 
by  a  four-inch  pipe  carried  above  the  roof,  and  ventilation  of 
the  closet  pans  also  effected  by  suitable  connections  with  the 
vent. 

Precaution  is  taken  to  place  in  the  closet  pans  a  simple  con- 
trivance to  prevent  the  entrance  into  the  drains  of  improper 
bodies.  The  contrivance  consists  of  two  converging  plates 
directed  downward  from  either  side  of  the  opening  in  the  seat, 
forming  a  longitudinal  slit  two  and  one-half  inches  in  width, 

o  o 

the  long  axis  of  the  slit  being  parallel  with  the  antero-posterior 
diameter  of  the  pan. 

Traps. 

'  Traps  are  appliances  placed  between  house  conveniences  and 
soil  pipes  and  drains  or  sewers,  to  prevent  sewer  gas  gaining 
an  entrance  into  the  house. 


354 


HABITATIONS. 


There  are  in  use  at  the  present  time  the  following  varieties : 
bell  traps,  gully  traps,  D-traps,  S-traps,  Antill's  traps,  and  dip- 
stone  traps,  with  certain  modified  and  improved  types. 

With  the  exception  of  the  gulley  trap  and  the  S-trap,  all  the 


FIG.  118. 


SEWER-GAS  AND  BACK-WATER  TRAP,  constructed  upon  the  S-principle. 

The  arrows  indicate  the  course  of  water    through  the    trap  ;  the  circular  dotted  line  the  position 
of  ball  when  waste  is  flowing  through  the  trap. 

FIG.  no. 


TRAP  ANDVENT  CONNECTION 


SAME  TKAP  AS  AIIOVR,  WITH   VRNT  CONNECTION. 

above  traps  arc  exceedingly  objectionable,  and  in  no  instance  is 
their  use  justifiable. 

Siphon  Traps.  In  ordinary  pipes,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
drain,  traps  constructed  on  the  siphon  principle  are  the  most 
applicable.  The  essential  requirements  of  such  a  trap  are  :  the 
dip  should  be  of  sufficient  depth  to  form  an  effectual  seal  ;  the 


BATH-TUB    TRAP. 


355 


trap  should  stand  on  a  flat  bottom,  that  it  may  the  more  readily 
be  laid  upon  a  level  ;  that  such  precaution  be  taken  as  to  provide 
for  ventilation,  prevent  siphonagc  of  the  trap,  and  secure  ample 
facilities  for  cleaning. 

Figs.  118  and  119  illustrate  an  improved  form  of  the  S-trap, 
in  which  the  ordinary  water  seal  is  reinforced  by  a  sinking-ball 
valve.  The  salient  feature  of  this  trap  is,  that  the  sinking-ball 
valve  will  afford  an  effectual  barrier  against  the  passage  of  sewer 
air  in  the  event  of  the  water  evaporating. 

When  water  is  flowing  through  the  trap,  the  ball  rises  against 
a  rubber  washer,  leaving  on  either  side  a  large  overflow  space, 
twice  the  size  of  the  inlet  pipe.  The  cover  may  be  readily  re- 
moved, thus  affording  easy  access  to  the  interior  of  the  trap. 


FIG.  120. 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  THE  BENNOR  BATH-TUB  TRAP,  showing  position  of  bal 

not  in  use. 


:ilve  in  trap  when 


Excepting  the  dome  and  cover,  which  are  of  hard  metal,  the 
trap  is  made  of  lead.  The  ball  is  made  of  a  non-corroding  metal, 
and,  being  perfectly  smooth,  does  not  accumulate  filth.  The 
trap  is  so  constructed  that,  if  desired,  the  proper  connections 
may  be  made  to  secure  ventilation. 

The  gulley  trap  is  the  best  of  that  variety  constructed  upon 
what  is  known  as  the  mid-feather  principle.  In  the  mid-feather 
principle  the  traps  have  one  or  more  partitions  projecting  into  the 
water,  situated  between  the  entrance  and  the  outlet  of  the  trap. 
The  depth  of  the  seal  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  par- 
tition dips  into  the  water.  In  this  category  belong  all  the  above- 
mentioned  traps  excepting,  of  course,  the  S-trap. 


356  HABITATIONS. 

Gulley  traps  have  a  distinct  field  of  usefulness,  and  in  this 
field  only  are  they  permissible.  This  form  of  trap  should  be 
used  only  in  disconnecting  the  waste-water  system  and  rain  pipes 
from  the  drain.  Gulley  traps  should  never  be  placed  within  the 
house  (t'.g.,  in  the  cellar). 

One  great  objection  to  the  gulley  trap  is  that  in  warm  and  dry 
weather  the  water  seal  is  apt  to  be  destroyed  by  evaporation, 
therefore,  precautions  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  this  con- 
tingency. 

The  trap  illustrated  in  Fig.  I2O  is  styled  a  "  bath-tub  "  trap, 
and  its  efficiency  depends  upon  the  security  of  the  sink-ball 
valve. 

The  trap  is  set  with  its  cap  on  a  level  with  the  floor,  so  that 
in  case  of  accident  it  may  be  reached  without  difficulty.  The 
cap  is  usually  rough  ;  but  when  situated  in  exposed  places  it  is 
finished  or  nickel  plated,  and  made  with  a  wide  flange  to  cover 
the  opening  in  the  floor  made  for  the  accommodation  of  the  body 
of  the  trap;  thus  it  does  not  offer  an  available  place  for  the  de- 
position of  dirt.  There  are  other  forms  of  traps  having  many 
most  excellent  features,  but  further  into  this  subject  space  forbids 
us  to  enter. 
Sinks. 

Sinks  are  generally  found  in  kitchens  or  other  apartments 
on  the  first  floor,  or  in  the  basement,  though  they  may  be  fre- 
quently met  with  in  the  upper  stories,  more  especially  in  large 
hotels  and  compartment  houses. 

The  basin  of  the  sink  shown  in  Fig.  121  is  constructed  of 
white  crockery,  and  the  top  of  heavy,  well-seasoned  ash  firmly 
secured.  The  sink  rests  upon  galvanized  iron  legs,  affording 
every  facility  for  maintaining  the  cleanliness  of  the  free  space 
beneath.  The  advantages  of  such  a  sink  are  that  it  is  strong, 
durable,  and  easily  kept  clean. 

Other  sinks  lined  with  lead  or  tinned  copper  are  greatly  fancied 
by  some  ;  and  those  of  copper  are,  indeed,  excellent  sink's,  being 
more  durable  than  those  of  lead,  and  presenting  a  much  better 
appearance. 

Sinks  should  be  set  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  water  to 
flow  toward  one  corner,  where  is  placed  the  opening  into  the 
waste  pipe.  The  opening  into  the  waste  pipe  should  be  cup- 


BATHS    AND    LAVATORIES.  357 

shaped  with  a  grid  at  the  bottom,  and  fitted  with  a. suitable  stop- 
per attached  to  a  chain,  that  the  sink  may  be  made  water-tight 
whenever  desired. 

The  diameter  at  the  juncture  of  the  cup  and  waste  pipe  should 
be  one  inch  greater  than  that  of  the  latter,  to  compensate  for  the 
space  occupied  by  the  grid.  That  this  may  be  accomplished  it 
is  necessary  that  the  waste  pipe  expand  funnel-like  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  point  of  junction  with  the  sink.  The  waste  pipe 
should  have  a  siphon  trap  fixed  immediately  beneath  the  grid  ; 
and  the  siphon  trap  at  its  lower  end  a  screw  cap,  that  it  may  be 
readily  kept  clean.  Continuing  on  to  the  side  of  the  house,  the 

FIG.  121. 


KITCHEN  SINK  of  white  crockery  ware,  supported  by  iron  legs.      Top  and  wall-board  of  ash.     Posi- 
tion of  hot  and  cold  water  taps  also  shown. 

waste  pipe    should   open   over  a  gulley  or  other  suitable   trap. 
The  siphon  and  gulley  traps  disposed  as  above  adduced  are  in- 
dispensably necessary. 
Baths  and  Lavatories. 

Baths  should  never  be  placed  in  bed  rooms,  but  in  fairly  large^ 
well-lighted,  well-ventilated  compartments  especially  constructed 
for  the  purpose.  The  compartments,  for  convenience,  may  be 
placed  adjoining  or  near  by  a  bedroom. 

For  obvious  sanitary  reasons  baths  must  be  efficiently  discon- 
nected from  the  drain  by  suitable  traps,  and  this  is  accomplished 
in  the  same  manner  as  detailed  under  sinks. 

Ventilation  of  the  pipe   is  effected  and   siphonage  of  the  trap 


358  HABITATIONS. 

prevented  by  establishing  communication  between  the  soil  pipe 
above  the  entrance  of  all  other  waste  pipes  (See  Fig.  123),  and 
at  a  point  in  the  waste  pipe  immediately  beyond  the  distal  ex- 
tremity of  the  trap. 

The  air  pipe,  by  which  communication  is  established,  should 
be  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  waste  pipe  from  which  it  proceeds. 
All  the  baths  must  be  provided  with  an  overflow,  connected  with 
the  waste  pipe  on  the  near  side  of  the  trap. 

Lavatories    demand  the  observance  of  the  same  precautions 
adduced  under  baths.     Each  lavatory  basin  must  have  a  trap  of 
its  own,  and  each  trap  properly  connected  with  an  air  pipe. 
Connections. 

Pipes.  Lead  pipes  now  in  use  are  known  as  drawn-lead  and 
seamed-lead  pipes. 

Drawn-lead  pipes  for  water-closet  systems  are  by  far  the  best 
in  use  at  the  present  time.  They  should  have  a  uniform  caliber 
throughout,  and  weigh,  for  soil  pipes,  from  seven  to  eight  pounds 
per  superficial  foot.  For  weight  per  superficial  foot  for  waste 
pipe  see  City  Regulations. 

Seamed-lead  pipes  are  never  to  be  used  in  sewage  systems,  as 
corrosion  along  the  seam  is  exceedingly  likely  to  ensue;  and, 
furthermore,  the  expansion  and  contraction  incident  to  varia- 
tions in  temperature  ultimately  effects  disruption  of  the  seam. 

Iron  pipes  are  very  unsatisfactory,  and  for  water-closet  systems 
inadmissible,  in  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  secure  a  perfectly 
smooth  interior.  They  corrode  easily,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
make  a  perfectly  tight  joint,  more  especially  between  them  and 
lead  junctions  or  traps. 

Cast-iron  pipes  are,  however,  well  adapted  for  the  construction 
of  house  drains  and  water  mains,  and  may  be  employed  when- 
ever it  is  possible  to  lay  them  under  ground  and  make  proper 
joints. 

Wrought-iron  pipes  are  quickly  acted  upon  by  sewage,  and  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  make  the  internal  surface  as  smooth  as 
in  cast-iron  pipes;  therefore,  heavy  cast-iron  pipes  should  always 
have  the  preference.  For  weight  per  superficial  foot  see  City 
Regulations. 

Terra-cotta  or  Karthemvare  Pipes.  This  form  of  pipe  is 
employed  chiefly  in  the  construction  of  drains  and  sewers. 


GLASS    I'LUMIUNG. 


359 


Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  materials,  and 
the  party  contracting  for  laying  the  work  must  be  governed  by 
the  City  or  State  Regulations. 

Bricks  are  employed  in  constructing  mains  and  the  larger 
sewers.  Only  the  very  best  materials  and  workmanship  should 
be  employed,  and  all  the  work  should  be  inspected  and  thoroughly 
tested  before  acceptance. 

Glass.  While  this  material  involves  many  excellent  features 
which  peculiarly  recommend  it  for  the  construction  of  house 
drains,  soil  pipes,  etc.,  sanitarians,  almost  without  exception, 

FIG.  122. 


GLASS  PIPE  PLUMBING. 

condemn  it  on  the  score  of  brittleness.  It  would  seem  to  us, 
however,  that  in  glass  properly  prepared  the  clanger  of  breakage 
incident  to  the  settling  of  buildings  and  variations  in  temperature 
would  be  very  small  indeed. 

In  making  a  test,  it  has  been  found  that  a  hollow  blown  block 
of  glass,  hermetically  sealed,  nine  by  four  inches  and  two  and 
one-half  inches  deep,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick  in  center, 
with  moulded  lines  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  receive  pres- 
sure, would  stand  a  test  of  two  hundred  pounds  pressure  to  the 
foot. 


360  HABITATIONS. 

In  relation  to  the  theory  of  substituting  the  lead  pipe  by  one 
of  glass,  we  find  that  drain  pipes  of  glass  have  already  been 
used,  and  communications  from  Pendleton,  Ind.,  prove  that 
they  are  being  turned  out  in  large  quantities  for  shipment  out 
West.  In  conference  with  some  of  our  most  practical  plumbers, 
while  they  somewhat  doubt  the  practical  use  of  glass  drainage 
pipes  for  interior  plumbing,  yet  they  do  not  wholly  negative 
the  possibility  of  its  use,  and,  therefore,  this  half-expressed 
doubt,  probably  born  on  the  cold  bed  of  prejudice,  lends  some 
encouragement  or  hope  that  in  the  near  future  our  question  of 
plumbing  may  be  one  that  will  afford  satisfaction  to  the  public 
and  prove  itself  an  insuperable  barrier  against  disease. 

The  first  objection  to  be  met  is  the  inability  of  glass  pipe  to 
resist  the  action  of  extreme  heat  and  cold. 

Second.  The  impossibility  to  form  the  necessary  joints  and 
elbows. 

Third.  That  the  sinking  or  settling  of  the  foundation  will 
cause  the  glass  pipes  to  shatter. 

In  answer  to  the  first,  it  might  be  said  that  glass  pipes  could 
be  made  to  stand  this  test,  and,  further,  that  the  degree  of  cold 
in  the  house  interior  is  rarely  equal  to  that  of  the  ground. 

In  answer  to  the  second  query  :  The  joints  and  elbows  could 
be  made  of  various  lengths,  as  in  terra-cotta  pipes,  and  the  joints 
could  be  caulked  by  teeth  edges  and  cemented. 

As  to  the  third  objection  :  Many  practical  men  contend  that 
glass  pipes  would  be  shattered  through  the  sinking  of  a  build- 
ing, but  we  have  yet  to  find  a  new  building  of  five  stories 
that  has  settled  five  inches.  Yet  such  a  case  may  occur  when 
buildings  are  erected  directly  over  quicksands,  without  neces- 
sary precautions,  and  we  therefore  have  to  make  provision  for 
such  extraordinary  sinking. 

The  advantages  that  should  be  derived  from  glass  soil  pipe 
are  many:  /'/r.sY.  Its  gla/.cd  surface  is  stronger  and  cleaner  than 
earthenware  or  terra  cotta. 

Second.  The  surface  is  impervious  and  would,  therefore,  more 
readily  throw  off  any  foreign  matter  or  substance. 

Tlnrd.  It  would  admit  of  an  easy  inspection  by  the  plumber, 
professional  or  layman.  On  each  floor  a  trap  should  be  left  in 
the  form  of  a  flap  with  hinges,  so  that  in  the  event  of  any  leak- 


PLUMBING    JOINTS.  361 

age  or  stoppage  an  immediate  inspection  might  be  made  without 
tearing  up  the  floor. 

Joints.  In  joining  lead  pipes  three  kinds  of  joints  are  used, 
and  they  are  known  as  the  copper-bit  joint,  the  wiped  joint,  and 
the  blown  joint. 

The  copper-bit  joint  is  far  inferior  to  the  wiped  joint,  but,  re- 
quiring little  of  the  skill  and  far  less  time  than  is  necessary  to 
make  the  latter,  is  much  affected  by  contracting  plumbers. 

Copper-bit  joints  are  made  as  follows  :  A  pear-shaped  block 
of  boxwood,  known  as  a  "  tan  pin,"  is  driven  by  a  mallet  into  the 
upper  end  of  the  lower  segment  of  pipe,  thus  making  a  slight, 
funnel-shaped  rim.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  upper  length 
of  pipe  is  rasped  down  to  fit  into  the  lower  segment,  and  then, 
by  a  heated  copper  bit,  stick  solder  is  run  into  the  space  between 
the  pipes. 

Wiped  joints  are  made  by  introducing  a  "tan  pin"  into  one 
extremity  of  a  pipe  in  the  same  way  as  in  making  a  copper-bit 
joint,  though  the  flange  is  not  made  so  large ;  and  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  upper  segment  is  rasped  so  as  to  accurately  fit 
into  the  funnel-shaped  expansion  of  the  lower  segment  without 
projecting  into  the  interior.  A  paint  composed  of  lamp-black, 
glue,  and  whiting  is  applied  to  the  contiguous  ends  of  the 
pipes  from  two  to  four  inches,  depending  upon  the  diameter  of 
the  pipe.  The  surface  on  either  side  of  the  line  of  junction 
is  carefully  shaved,  with  a  tool  known  as  a  "  shave  hook,"  in 
such  a  way  as  to  remove  only  the  paint  and  the  smallest  surface 
of  the  lead  pipe. 

Pipes  thus  carefully  prepared  present  an  untarnished  surface 
for  contact  with  the  solder,  and  their  thickness  is  not  materially 
lessened. 

To  prevent  retarnishing  in  case  the  solder  is  not  ready  for 
immediate  use,  the  surface  is  smeared  over  with  tallow.  When 
the  solder  is  ready  the  surface  of  the  pipes  is  wiped  clean,  the 
solder  applied  to  the  untarnished  surface,  and  by  means  of  a 
moleskin  soldering  cloth  accurately  molded  to  the  surface  of 
the  pipes. 

In  making  a  wiped  joint  the  soldering  iron  will  never  be 
called  into  requisition  except  in  the  instance  of  vertical  four-inch 
pipes. 

-3 


362  HABITATIONS. 

The  solder  for  making  wiped  joints  consists  of  one  part  of 
tin  to  three  of  lead  ;  while  in  the  making  of  copper-bit  joints 
the  composition  is  one  part  of  lead  and  three  of  tin.  The  reason 
for  this  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  solder  is  that  the  one 
having  the  greater  proportion  of  tin  will  the  longer  retain  the  heat 
and  permit  the  solder  to  enter  into  the  space  between  the  pipes. 

Blown  joints  are  made  by  preparing  the  pipes  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  then  heating  the  abutting  ends  by  means  of  a  blow- 
pipe flame.  When  the  pipes  are  heated  to  a  sufficient  tempera- 
ture, stick  solder  is  applied  ;  and  as  it  melts  it  runs  into  the 
space  between  the  pipes,  and  thus  the  joint  is  completed.  Sani- 
tarians should  employ  no  circumlocution  in  condemning  such 
joints  ;  they  bear  no  strain  whatever,  and  are  only  found  in  the 
very  poorest  specimens  of  plumbing  work. 

When  iron  pipes  are  employed  in  the  construction  of  soil  pipes, 
they  should  conform  in  weight  to  the  list  given  in  the  City  Regu- 
lations soon  to  be  quoted.  If  of  this  weight  the  pipes  will  permit 
of  the  joints  being  caulked  with  lead  ;  no  other  joint  should  be 
allowed  in  such  connections. 

There  are  a  number  of  patent  joints  in  the  market,  and  all  the 
more  recent  ones  are  of  greater  or  less  value  ;  but  the  scope  of 
this  work  does  not  permit  of  their  discussion. 

Man-holes. 

Man-holes  are  large  trapped  chambers  placed  at  the  point  of 
junction  of  several  tributary  drains  with  the  outfall  drain,  and  in 
the  course  of  large  drains,  tributary  sewers  and  mains  where 
they  change  their  course.  The  foundations  of  a  man-hole 
should  be  of  concrete;  the  walls  should  be  constructed  of 
glazed  bricks  set  in  cement ;  and  the  cover  should  be  a  perforated 
iron  grating  when  the  man-hole  is  so  situated  as  to  be  free  from 
the  danger  of  being  filled  with  dirt;  otherwise  it  should  be 
covered  by  an  im perforate,  accurately  fitting  door.  In  the 
latter  instance  ventilation  is  effected  by  means  of  a  four-inch 
vent  pipe,  or  by  constructing  an  adjoining  chamber  which  will 
communicate  with  the  shaft  of  the  man-hole  through  the  upper 
part  of  the  partition  between  them.  The  supplementary  chamber 
should  be  covered  by  an  iron  grating,  and  below  the  iron  grating 
should  be  placed  a  bucket  to  catch  all  dirt  passing  into  the 
chamber. 


DRAINS    AND    SEWERS.  363 

As  the  drains  enter  the  man-hole  they  empty  into  grooves  or 
channels  in  the  floor.  The  grooves  are  directly  continuous  with 
the  lumen  of  the  tributary  drains.  The  angle  at  which  side- 
drains  connect  with  the  central  channel  should  be  easy,  so  as  not 
to  impede  the  flow.  The  central  or  main  channel  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  outlet  drain  should  taper  and  discharge  into  a 
siphon  trap  of  considerably  less  diameter ;  thus  the  main  chan- 
nel from  a  six-inch  drain  will  discharge  into  a  four-inch  siphon 
trap.  The  siphon  trap,  to  facilitate  cleaning,  should  be  provided 
with  a  "  raking  arm"  closed  by  a  tightly  fitting  cap  or  plug  when 
not  in  use. 

Drains. 

Drains  should  be  laid  as  nearly  straight  as  possible,  with  the 
socket  end  directed  against  the  flow.  The  gradient  should  be 
uniform  and  not  less  than  one  foot  in  sixty.  Junctions  with 
drains  should  always  be  at  an  acute  angle  (V-form),  and  not  at 
a  right  angle.  In  V-j unctions  the  sewage  enters  the  main  drain 
in  the  direction  of  its  flow,  thus  favoring  the  flow  in  the  tributary 
drains.  If  the  junctions  are  made  otherwise  than  obliquely, 
more  or  less  resistance  to  the  onflow  will  be  offered,  deposition 
of  sewage  occur,  and  finally  serious  obstructions  engendered. 
Whenever  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  make  bencls  in 
a  drain,  it  should  be  done  by  joining  slightly  curved  pipes,  mak- 
ing the  bend  an  easy  one,  and  not  by  joining  straight  pipes  at 
obtuse  angles. 

To  obviate  the  necessity  for  breaking  into  a  drain  to  clear 
away  obstructions,  inspection  pipes  are  employed.  These  pipes 
may  be  similar  to  the  V-shaped  junction  pipes,  but  they  are  set 
with  the  projecting  limb  directed  upward  ;  connected  with  this 
projecting  limb  should  be  a  vertical  pipe  continuing  to  the  surface 
above.  The  pipe  should  be  closed  above  by  an  air-tight  though 
easily  removed  cover. 

Sewers. 

We  have  elsewhere  considered  the  materials  from  which  sewers 
are  constructed.  Though  it  is  not  within  our  province  to  discuss 
the  size  and  fall  of  sewers,  yet  so  important  is  it  that  a  iew  re- 
marks may  not  be  considered  irrelevant. 

The  size  of  a  sewer  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  sewage  it  will  be  called  upon  to  dispose  of.  But  this  ques- 


364  HABITATIONS. 

tion  we  cannot  freely  discuss ;  however,  the  gradient  will  bear  a 
direct  relation  to  its  size.  In  sewers  constructed  with  an  insuffi- 
cient gradient  deposition  will  surely  occur;  and  to  eliminate  this 
factor  in  obstruction,  to  render  the  sewers  self-cleaning,  and  for 
economy,  the  capacity  should  be  but  little  greater  than  the  ordi- 
nary every-day  demands  that  will  be  made  upon  it.  The  velocity 
in  sewers  should  be  not  less  than  two  and  one-half  feet  per  second 
in  those  of  from  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  sewers  of 
greater  diameter  at  least  two  feet  per  second.  In  the  larger 
sewers  the  fall  will  be  less,  but  to  attain  the  desired  rate  of  flow 
it  must  be  compensated  for  by  the  greater  volume  of  sewage. 
As  an  example  we  adduce  the  following  table  : — 

Diameter.  Gradient. 

10  feet, 2  feet  per  mile. 

5       "        4       " 

2         " 10 

I      foot, 20          '•  ' 

Thus  to  secure  a  flow  at  the  desired  rate  a  sewer  one  foot  in 
diameter  must  have  a  fall  of  twenty  feet  per  mile,  while  a  sewer 
ten  feet  in  diameter  has  a  fall  of  only  two  feet  per  mile;  but  the 
volume  of  sewage  passing  through  the  larger  sewer  is  one  hun- 
dred times  greater  than  the  volume  passing  through  the  smaller. 
The  greater  momentum  imparted  to  the  greater  volume  com- 
pensates for  the  diminution  in  the  grade. 

While  it  frequently  happens  that  sewers  are  constructed  so 
as  to  carry  off  only  the  sewage,  the  surface  and  subsoil  water 
being  excluded  and  carried  off  by  other  channels,  others  are  so 
built  as  to  care  for  both.  The  former  system  is  known  as  the 
separate  and  the  latter  as  the  combined. 

The  separate  system  is  undoubtedly  best  adapted  for  smaller 
cities  and  towns,  as  the  surface  and  subsoil  waters  can  easily 
and  with  more  economy  be  cared  for  otherwise. 

For  large  cities  it  is  best  to  construct  special  water  ways  or 
sewers  for  carrying  off  the  surface  or  rain  water;  by  this  means 
the  soil  is  rendered  dryer  and  more  healthful  than  when  the  sur- 
face water  is  permitted  to  soak  into  the  ground.  If  conveyed 
to  the  sewer  the  surface  water,  especially  after  heavy  rains,  so 
greatly  augments  the  demands  upon  the  capacity  of  the  sewer, 
that  washouts  and  breaks  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Further- 


PLUMBING    REGULATIONS.  363 

more,  to  construct  a  sewer  sufficiently  large  to  meet  any  contin- 
gency, would  so  increase  the  extent  of  the  internal  surface  and 
resistance  to  the  onflow  of  the  sewage,  that  deposition  could  not 
possibly  be  avoided.  Sewers  as  now  constructed  are  elliptical ; 
this  increases  the  depth  of  the  flow  and  lessens  the  friction. 

In  the  following  extracts  from  the  Regulations  of  the  Board 
of  Health  of  Philadelphia  governing  the  construction  of  sewage 
systems  will  be  found  directions  and  specifications,  which,  when 
taken  in  connection  with  what  has  already  been  adduced,  will 
prove  amply  sufficient  for  a  work  of  this  kind. 

"  Outside  of  buildings,  where  the  soil  is  of  sufficient  solidity 
for  a  proper  foundation,  cylindrical  terra-cotta  pipes,  of  the  best 
quality,  free  from  flaws,  splits,  or  cracks,  perfectly  burned,  and 
well  glazed  over  the  entire  inner  and  outer  surfaces  may  be 
used,  laid  on  a  smooth  bottom,  with  a  special  groove  cut  in  the 
bottom  of  trench  for  each  hub  (in  order  to  give  the  pipe  a  solid 
bearing  on  its  entire  length),  and  the  soil  well  rammed  on  each 
side  of  the  pipe.  The  spigot  and  hub  ends  shall  be  concentric. 

"The  space  between  the  hub  and  pipe  shall  be  thoroughly 
filled  with  the  best  cement  mortar,  made  of  equal  parts  of  the 
best  American  natural  cement  and  bar  sand  thoroughly  mixed 
dry,  and  water  enough  afterward  added  to  give  it  proper  consist- 
ence. The  cement  must  be  mixed  in  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
and  used  as  soon  as  made.  The  joints  must  be  carefully  wiped 
and  pointed,  and  all  mortar  that  may  be  left  inside  thoroughly 
cleaned  out  and  the  pipe  left  clean  and  smooth  throughout,  for 
which  purpose  a  swab  shall  be  used. 

"  No  tempered-up  cement  shall  be  used.  A  straight-edge  shall 
be  used,  and  the  different  sections  shall  be  laid  in  perfect  line  on 
the  bottom  and  sides  ;  but  in  no  case  shall  terra-cotta  pipes  be 
permitted  within  five  (5)  feet  of  any  foundation  wall,  or  for  ex- 
tensions to  connect  with  rain-water  conductors,  surface,  or  air 
inlets. 

"  Nofc.  After  the  test  has  been  approved  by  the  inspector, 
iron  drain  or  soil  pipes  may  be  tar-coated.  But  in  no  case  shall 
any  coating  be  applied  to  cast-iron  soil  or  drain  pipes  until  test 
has  been  applied  and  approved  by  the  inspector. 

"Ride  ii.  The  house  drain  shall  not  be  less  than  four  (4)  inches, 
nor  more  than  ten  (10)  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  fall  shall  not 


366  HABITATIONS. 

be  less  than  one-half  (l/2]  an  inch  to  the  foot,  unless  by  special 
permission  of  the  Board  of  Health  ;  it  shall  be  laid  in  a  trench 
cut  at  a  uniform  grade,  or  it  may  be  constructed  along  the 
foundation  walls  above  the  cellar  floor,  resting  on  nine  (9)  inch 
brick  piers  laid  in  cement  mortar  (said  piers  to  be  not  more  than 
seven  (7)  feet  apart),  and  securely  fastened  to  said  walls ;  no  test 
shall  be  made  by  the  inspector  until  said  pipes  are  secured  as 
above  described. 

"Rule  12.  The  arrangement  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  shall  be  as 
direct  as  possible.  All  changes  in  direction  on  horizontal  pipes 
shall  be  made  with  Y-branches,  one-sixteenth  (TV),  or  one-eighth 
(*£')  bends. 

"Rule  /  ,\  The  house  drain  shall  be  provided  with  a  horizontal 
trap  placed  immediately  inside  the  cellar  wall  nearest  to  the 
sewer,  or  at  the  curb.  The  trap  shall  have  a  hand-hole,  for  con- 
venience in  cleaning,  the  cover  of  which  shall  be  properly  fitted 
and  the  joints  made  air-tight. 

"yote.  If  the  trap  on  the  main  drain  is  placed  inside  of  the 
cellar  wall,  there  shall  be  no  clean-out  between  the  water  seal 
of  the  trap  and  the  sewer. 

"Rule  //.  There  shall  be  an  inlet  for  fresh  air  entering  the  drain 
just  inside  the  water  seal  of  the  main  trap,  and  also  at  the  rear 
end  of  the  system  when  the  vertical  line  of  soil  pipe  is  located 
in  the  central  part  of  the  building  and  the  main  fresh  air  inlet 
is  deemed  insufficient  to  ventilate  the  entire  system.  Said  inlets 
shall  be  at  least  four  (4)  inches  in  diameter,  leading  to  the  outer 
air  and  opening  at  any  convenient  place,  with  an  accessible 
clean-out.  Where  air  inlets  are  located  off  the  footway,  on 
grass  plats,  lawns,  etc.,  they  shall  extend  not  less  than  six  (6) 
nor  more  than  fifteen  (15)  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  be  protected  by  a  cowl  securely  fastened  with  bolts. 

"Rule  /•,-.  Where  the  drain  passes  through  a  new  foundation 
wall,  a  relieving  arch  shall  be  built  over  it  with  a  two  (2)  inch 
clearance  on  either  side. 

"Rule  ifi.  Every  vertical  soil  pipe  shall  extend  at  least  two  (2) 
feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  building  or  contiguous  prop- 
erty, and  shall  be  of  undiminished  si/.e,  with  the  outlet  uncovered 
except  with  a  wire  guard.  Such  soil  pipe  shall  not  open  near  a 
window  nor  an  air-shaft  ventilating  living  rooms. 


PLUMBING    REGULATIONS.  367 

e  77.  Every  branch  or  horizontal  line  of  soil  pipe  to  which 
a  group  of  two  (2)  or  more  water-closets  is  to  be  connected,  and 
every  branch  line  of  horizontal  soil  pipe  eight  (8)  feet  or  more 
in  length,  to  which  a  water-closet  is  to  be  connected,  shall  be 
ventilated,  either  by  extending  said  soil  pipe,  undiminishcd  in  size, 
to  at  least  two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  building  or 
contiguous  property,  or  by  extending  said  soil  pipe  and  connect- 
ing it  with  the  main  soil  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture,  or  by  a 
ventilating  pipe  connected  to  the  crown  of  each  water-closet 
trap,  not  less  than  two  (2)  inches  in  diameter,  which  shall  be  in- 
creased one-half  (*/^)  an  inch  in  diameter  for  every  fifteen  (15) 
feet  in  length,  and  connected  to  a  special  air  pipe,  which  shall 
not  be  less  than  four  (4)  inches  in  diameter,  or  by  connecting 
said  ventilating  pipe  with  the  main  soil  pipe  above  the  highest 
fixture. 

"Rule  iS.  Where  a  separate  line  of  waste  pipes  is  used,  not 
connected  with  sewer  pipes,  it  shall  also  be  carried  two  (2)  feet 
above  the  highest  part  of  the  building  or  contiguous  property, 
unless  otherwise  permitted  by  the  Board  of  Health.  But  in  no 
case  shall  a  waste  pipe  connect  with  a  rain-water  conductor. 

"Rule  icj.  There  shall  be  no  traps,  caps,  or  cowls  on  soil  and 
waste  pipes,  which  will  interfere  with  the  system  of  ventilation. 

"Rule  20.  All  soil,  waste,  anti-siphon  pipes,  and  traps,  inside  of 
new  buildings,  and  of  the  new  work  in  old  buildings,  and  also 
of  the  entire  system  when  alterations  are  made  in  old  buildings, 
and  the  owner  or  agent  of  said  building  or  buildings  shall  have 
contracted  to  have  the  entire  drainage  system  tested, — shall 
have  openings  stopped,  and  a  test  of  not  less  than  three  (3) 
pounds  atmospheric  pressure  to  the  square  inch  applied. 

"Rule  21.  The  drain,  soil,  and  waste  pipes,  and  the  traps  shall, 
if  practicable,  be  exposed  to  view  for  ready  inspection  at  all  times, 
and  for  convenience  in  repairing.  When  placed  within  walls  or 
partitions  and  not  exposed  to  view,  or  not  covered  with  wood- 
work fastened  with  screws  so  as  to  be  readily  removed,  or  when 
not  easily  accessible,  extra  heavy  pipes  shall  be  used  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Board  of  Health. 

"Rule  22.  No  drainage  work  shall  be  covered  or  concealed  in 
any  way  until  after  it  has  been  examined  and  approved  by  a 
House-drainage  Inspector,  and  notice  must  be  sent  to  the  Board 


368 


HABITATIONS. 


of  Health,  in  writing,  when  the  work  is  sufficiently  advanced  for 
such  inspection  ;  and  immediately  on  the  completion  of  the  work 
application  must  be  made  for  final  inspection.  The  failure  on 
the  part  of  a  master  plumber  to  make  said  application  for  final 
inspection,  or  the  violation  of  any  of  the  rules  of  the  Board  of 
Health  in  the  construction  of  any  drainage  work,  and  failure  to 
correct  the  fault  after  notification,  will  be  deemed  sufficient  cause 
to  place  his  name  on  the  delinquent  list,  until  he  has  complied 
with  said  rules  and  regulations.  Any  attempt  on  the  part  of  a 
master  plumber  to  construct  or  alter  a  system  of  drainage  dur- 
ing the  time  his  name  appears  on  said  delinquent  list,  will  subject 
him  to  criminal  prosecution. 

"Rule  23.  All  drain  and  anti-siphon  pipes  of  cast-iron  shall  be 
sound,  free  from  holes,  and  of  a  uniform  thickness,  and  shall  con- 
form to  the  following  relative  weights: — 


Standard.                                             Extra  f/eavy. 

2  in.  pipe,  4  Ibs.  per  foot.         2  in.  pipe,  $*4  Ibs.  per  foot. 

3 

' 

6 

3 

'          9/2 

'          " 

4 

9 

4  ' 

'     13 

5 

12 

5  ' 

'    17 

6 

' 

'5 

'               6  • 

'    20 

7 

2O 

7  ' 

•    27 

8 

25 

8  ' 

'    33  /2 

. 

10 

* 

'    35 

10    ' 

45 

.< 

12 

' 

'    45 

<                    J2    • 

'     54 

•' 

"All  drains  and  anti-siphon  cast-iron  pipes  should  have  the 
weight  per  foot  and  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  cast  on  the 
exterior  surface,  directly  back  of  the  flange  of  each  section. 

"  Lead  waste  pipes  may  be  used  for  horizontal  lines  that  are 
two  (2)  inches  or  less  in  diameter,  and  shall  have  not  less  than 
the  following  prescribed  weights  : — 

1  incl)  pipe,  2  Ihs.  o  oz. 

1%       »  "         2     "      8    - 

2  "          ''         4     "      O    '• 

"  Lead  bends  or  traps  for  water-closets  shall  not  be  less  than 
one-eighth  ('«)  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

"Waste  pipes  from  wash-basins,  sinks,  and  bath-tubs  shall  not 
be  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  (iVQ  inches  in  diameter,  and 
wash-tray  waste  pipes  not  less  than  one  and  one-half  ( I  ]/,]  inches 
in  diameter. 


PLUMBING    REGULATIONS.  369 

"All  joints  in  cast-iron  drain,  soil,  and  waste  pipes,  should  be 
so  caulked  with  oakum  and  lead,  or  with  cement  made  of  iron 
filings  and  sal-ammoniac,  as  to  make  them  gas-tight. 

"All  connections  of  lead  with  iron  pipe  shall  be  made  with  a 
brass  ferrule  not  less  than  one-eighth  (^g)  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, put  in  the  hub  of  the  iron  pipe  and  caulked  in  with  lead, 
except  in  cases  of  iron  water-closet  traps  or  old  work,  when 
drilling  or  tapping  is  permitted.  The  lead  pipe  should  be  at- 
tached to  the  ferrule  by  a  wiped  solder  joint. 

"All  connections  of  lead  pipe  shall  be  by  wiped  solder  joints. 

"  Every  water-closet,  sink,  basin,  wash-tray,  bath,  and  every 
tub  or  set  of  tubs,  shall  be  separately  and  effectually  trapped. 

"  The  trap  must  be  placed  as  near  the  fixture  as  practicable, 
and  all  waste  pipes  be  provided  with  strong  metallic  strainers. 
All  drains  from  hydrants  shall  be  trapped,  and  in  a  manner  ac- 
cessible for  cleaning  out. 

"Traps  of  fixtures  shall  be  protected  from  siphonage.  All 
anti-siphon  pipes  shall  be  carried  up  through  the  roof  or  con- 
nected with  the  main  soil  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture. 

"  Every  anti-siphon  pipe  shall  be  of  lead,  of  galvanized  gas-pipe, 
or  of  plain  cast-iron  pipe.  Where  these  pipes  go  through  the  roof 
they  shall  extend  two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  build- 
ing or  contiguous  property  ;  they  may  be  combined  by  branching 
together  those  which  serve  several  traps.  These  pipes,  where  not 
vertical,  must  always  have  a  continuous  slope  to  avoid  collecting 
water  by  condensation. 

"All  drip  or  overflow  pipes  from  safes  under  wash-basins,  baths, 
urinals,  water-closets,  or  other  fixtures  shall  be  by  a  special  pipe 
run  to  an  open  sink,  outside  the  house,  or  some  conspicuous 
point;  and  in  no  case  shall  any  such  pipe  be  connected  with  a 
soil,  drain,  or  waste  pipe. 

"No  waste  pipe  from  a  refrigerator  or  other  receptacle  in  which 
provisions  are  stored  shall  be  connected  with  any  drain,  soil,  or 
other  waste  pipe.  Such  waste  pipes  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to 
admit  of  frequent  flushings,  and  shall  be  as  short  as  possible. 

"The  overflow  pipes  from  tanks  and  waste  pipes  from  refrigators 
shall  discharge  into  an  open  fixture  properly  trapped. 

"All  water-closets  within  buildings  shall  be  supplied  with  water 
from  special  tanks  or  cisterns  which  shall  hold  not  less  than 


37O  HABITATIONS. 

eight  (8)  gallons  of  water  when  up  to  the  level  of  the  overflow 
pipe  for  each  closet  supplied,  excepting  automatic  or  syphon 
tanks,  which  shall  hold  not  less  than  five  (5)  gallons  of  water  for 
each  closet  supplied.  The  water  in  said  tanks  shall  not  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose.  The  flushing  pipe  of  all  tanks  shall  not 
be  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  (ij^)  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

"  Xo  closet,  except  those  placed  in  the  yard,  shall  be  supplied 
directly  from  the  supply  pipes. 

"A  group  of  closets  may  be  supplied  from  one  tank,  but  water- 
closets  on  different  floors  shall  not  be  flushed  from  one  tank. 

"Water-closets,  when  placed  in  the  yard,  shall  be  so  arranged 
as  to  be  conveniently  and  adequately  flushed,  and  their  water- 
supply  pipes  and  traps  shall  be  protected  from  freezing  by  plac- 
ing them  in  a  hopper-pit,  at  least  three  and  one-half  (3^/2)  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  walls  of  which  shall  be  of 
brick  or  stone  laid  in  cement  mortar.  The  waste  water  from  the 
hopper  stop-cock  shall  be  conveyed  to  the  drain  through  a  three- 
eights  (2<6)  inch  pipe,  properly  connected. 

"  The  enclosure  of  the  yard  water-closet  shall  be  ventilated  by 
slatted  openings,  and  there  shall  be  a  trap  door  in  the  floor  of 
sufficient  size  for  access  to  the  hopper  pit. 

"Water-closets  must  not  be  located  in  the  sleeping  apartments 
of  any  building,  nor  in  any  room  or  apartment  which  has  not 
direct  communication  with  the  external  air  either  by  a  window 
or  an  air-shaft,  having  an  area  to  the  open  air  of  at  least  four  (4) 
square  feet. 

"The  containers  of  all  water-closets  shall  be  supplied  with  fresh 
air,  and  be  properly  ventilated,  as  approved  by  the  Board  of 
Health. 

"All  water-closets,  within  a  building,  using  lead  connections 
shall  have  a  cast-brass  flange,  not  less  than  three-sixteenths  (T^) 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  (fitted  with  a  pure  rubber  gasket  of  suffi- 
cient thickness  to  insure  a  tight  joint),  bolted  to  the  closet. 

"  Where  latrines  are  used  for  schools  they  shall  be  of  iron, 
properly  supplied  with  water,  and  located  in  the  yard  at  least 
twenty  (20)  feet  from  the  building  when  practicable. 

"  Rain-water  conductors  shall  be  connected  with  the  house 
drain  or  sewer,  and  be  provided  with  a  trap,  the  seal  of  which 
shall  be  not  less  than  five  (5)  inches.  Said  trap  shall  have  a 


PLUMBING    REGULATIONS.  37  I 

hand-hole  for  convenience  in  cleaning,  the  cover  of  which  shall 
be  made  air-tight. 

"  Rain  conductors  shall  not  be  connected  outside  of  the  main 
trap,  nor  used  as  soil,  waste,  or  vent  pipes  ;  nor  shall  any  soil, 
waste,  or  air  pipe  be  used  as  a  rain  conductor,  and,  if  placed 
within  a  building,  shall  be  of  cast-iron  pipe  with  leaded  joints. 

"  No  steam  exhaust  or  waste  from  steam  pipes  shall  be  con- 
nected with  any  house  drain  or  soil  pipe. 

"  No  privy  vault  or  cesspool  for  sewage  shall  hereafter  be  con- 
structed in  any  part  of  the  city  where  a  sewer  is  at  all  accessible. 

"  No  connection  from  any  cesspool  or  privy  well  shall  be  made 
with  any  sewer,  nor  shall  any  water-closet  or  house  drainage 
empty  into  a  cesspool  or  privy  well. 

"In  rural  districts  waste  pipes  from  buildings  may  be  connected 
with  cesspools  constructed  for  that  special  purpose,  properly 
flagged  or  arched  over,  and  not  water-tight,  by  special  permis- 
sion of  the  Board  of  Health. 

"  Privy  vaults  must  be  constructed  as  follows  :  Each  building 
situate  on  an  unsewered  street  must  have  a  privy  vault  not  less 
than  four  (4)  feet  in  diameter  and  ten  (10)  feet  deep  in  the  clear, 
lined  with  hard  brick  nine  (9)  inches  in  thickness,  laid  in  cement 
mortar,  and  proved  to  be  water-tight. 

"  Privy  vaults  shall  not  be  located  within  two  (2)  feet  of  party 
lines,  or  within  twenty  (20)  feet  of  a  building  when  practicable  ; 
and  before  any  privy  vault  shall  be  constructed,  application  shall 
be  made  and  a  permit  for  same  issued  by  the  Board  of  Health. 

"No  opening  will  be  permitted  in  the  drain  pipe  of  any  build- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  draining  a  cellar,  unless  by  special  per- 
mission by  the  Board  of  Health. 

"Cellar  drains  shall  be  constructed  as  follows  :  By  a  system  of 
French  drains,  or  field  tile,  to  a  catch-basin,  flagged  over ;  the 
outlet  pipe  shall  be  properly  trapped  and  connected  with  the 
house  drain,  and  shall  also  be  provided  with  a  back  pressure 
valve  or  stop-cock  the  required  size. 

"When  the  drainage  of  buildings  erected  prior  to  1886  has 
been  inspected  and  condemned,  plans  must  be  filed,  and  the  new- 
work  or  alterations  shall  be  executed  in  accordance  with  these 
rules  and  regulations. 

"  The  main  drain  of  every  house  or  building  shall  be  separately 


3/2  HABITATIONS. 

and  independently  connected  with  a  street  sewer,  where  one  is 
provided ;  and  where  there  is  no  sewer  in  the  street,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  construct  a  private  sewer  to  connect  with  one  on  an 
adjacent  street,  such  plans  may  be  used  as  may  be  approved  by 
the  Board  of  Health  ;  but  in  no  case  shall  a  joint  drain  be  laid 
in  cellars  parallel  with  street  or  alley.  All  other  drains  or  soil 
pipes  connected  with  the  main  drain,  or  where  the  main  drain 
pipe  is  above  the  cellar  floor,  shall  be  of  plain  cast-iron  pipe,  or 
of  wrought-iron  pipe  with  screw  joints  made  with  a  paste  of  red 
lead,  and  treated  to  prevent  corrosion." 

SEWAGE  OR  WASTE  SYSTEM. 

Having  considered,  at  some  length,  the  detail  of  house  plumb- 
ing, etc.,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  discuss  the  proper  disposition 
of  the  appliances.  In  Fig.  123  we  illustrate  by  diagram  the 
sewage  or  waste  system  of  a  house. 

(a)  Represents  the  soil  pipe  abutting  against  the  external  sur- 
face of  the  wall  (it  should  never  be  placed  within),  and  in  such 
a  position  as  not  to  be  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
This  latter  precaution  is  taken  to  preclude  the  danger  of  bending, 
which  is  almost  sure  to  occur  if  the  pipe  is  placed  in  an  exposed 
position.  It  will  be  observed,  furthermore,  that  the  pipe  is  car- 
ried without  any  diminution  whatever,  in  diameter,  up  under  the 
eaves  to  the  highest  point  of  the  roof,  and  from  which  point  it 
extends  directly  upward  for  two  feet.  The  diameter  of  the 
pipe  should  be  four  inches,  as  this  size  seems  best  adapted  to 
houses  of  ordinary  size.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this 
measurement  are  :  that  it  presents  an  extent  of  surface  that  may 
be  effectually  flushed  by  the  volume  of  water  (two  to  four  gallons) 
discharged  from  the  better  forms  of  flush  tanks  ;  that  there  is 
less  likelihood  of  deposition  than  in  the  larger  pipes;  and  that 
the  suction  force  is  not  sufficiently  potent  to  siphon  traps  with 
water  seals  of  average  effectiveness. 

Many  architects  and  sanitary  authorities,  especially  in  Great 
Britain,  are  advocating  the  direct  connection  of  soil  pipes  with 
drains,  though  in  this  country  disconnection  by  suitable  traps 
is  still  much  affected.  The  former  class  argue  that  with  the 
modern  improvements  in  the  construction  of  sewers,  tributary 
sewers,  and  drains,  and  by  the  application  of  the  developed 


SEWAGE    AND    WASTE-WATER    SYSTEMS. 


373 


methods  for  securing  ventilation,  the  sewer  gas  never  attains  to 
a  sufficiently  high  tension  to  force  the  traps  guarding  the  water- 
closets,  lavatories,  baths,  sinks,  etc.,  especially  if  the  soil  pipe 
be  constructed  in  conformity  with  the  specifications  just  adduced. 
b  Indicates  a  special  soil  pipe  into  which  discharges  the  waste 

FIG.  123. 


PLAN  OF  SEWAGE  SYSTFM  IN  HOUSE. 


pipes  from  the  lavatory  and  bath.  It  also  passes  down  along  the 
outside  of  the  wall  to  discharge  upon  a  gully  or  other  suitable 
trap.  This  pipe  should  never  connect  directly  with  the  drain 
or  sewer.  No  waste  pipes  or  vents  from  water  closets,  urinals, 
sinks,  or  laundry  tubs  are  to  be  connected  with  this  pipe.  Soil 


374  HABITATIONS. 

pipe  b  is  not  under  any  circumstances  to  be  connected  with  soil 
pipe  a. 

In  the  construction,  soil  pipe  b  is  to  be  continued,  undiminished 
in  diameter  and  without  any  deviation  from  a  straight  line,  12 
inches  above  the  eaves  of  the  house,  it  not  being  necessary  in 
this  instance  to  carry  it  to  the  highest  point  of  the  roof. 

(c]  A  gully  trap  placed  just  without  the  house  and  over  which 
discharge  the  waste  pipes  from  the  sink  and  laundry  tubs,  and 
the  special  soil  pipe  carrying  the  waste  water  from  the  bath  and 
lavatory.  The  rain  water  from  the  roof  also  enters  the  drain 
from  this  point.  The  surface  of  the  yard  or  free  space  about  the 
house  should  be  so  graded  that  the  surface  water  will  flow  into 
the  trap. 

(a]  Water-closet,  showing  the  connection  of  the  flush  pipe, 
the  position  of  the  trap,  the  manner  in  which  ventilation  is 
secured,  and  siphonage  prevented  by  the  proper  disposition  of 
the  vent  (/). 

(e)  The  waste  pipe  from  water-closet,  showing  its  course  and 
connection  with  soil  pipe. 

(£-)  Kitchen  sink,  showing  position  of  the  trap  and  vent  (,£) 
and  the  course  of  the  waste  pipe  (/). 

(//)  Laundry  tubs  with  traps,  and,  as  will  be  seen,  both  tubs 
are  disconnected  by  each  having  its  own  trap.  The  vent  (/') 
again  shows  the  manner  of  protecting  traps. 

(/)  Represents  the  common  vent  pipe  of  sink  and  laundry 
tubs.  This  vent  passes  up  to  a  point  above  where  the  waste 
pipe  from  the  closet  enters  the  soil  pipe ;  it  then  passes 
through  the  wall  to  connect  with  the  soil  pipe.  This  arrange- 
ment of  the  vent  is  to  prevent  the  waste  materials  discharged 
into  the  soil  pipe  from  upper  stories  gaining  an  entrance 
into  it.  The  waste  material  discharged  into  the  soil  pipe  will 
find  an  entrance  into  the  sink  and  laundry  tubs  if  the  vents 
from  the  latter  should  enter  the  soil  pipe  below  the  waste 
pipes. 

It  can  be  given  as  an  unalterable  rule  that  vents  must  always 
connect  with  soil  pipes  above  the  entrance  of  all  waste  pipes. 

(ni)  Bath  tub,  showing  the  position  of  trap  and  connection 
with  the  waste  pipe  (o)  from  the  lavatory.  The  over-flow  pipe 
from  bath  is  not  shown,  but  it  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 


SEWAGE    AND    WASTE-WATER    SYSTEMS.  375 

connect  the  bath  tub,  at  a  point  about  three  inches  from  the  top, 
with  the  waste  pipe  at  a  point  between  the  trap  and  bath  tub. 

(«)  Lavatory  basin,  showing  trap  and  waste  pipe  (o).  In  this, 
as  in  the  batli  tub,  the  overflow  pipe  is  not  shown,  but  it  should 
connect  with  the  basin  and  waste  pipe  in  the  same  manner  as 
does  the  overflow  pipe  of  the  bath  tub,  though  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  have  it  open  into  the  basin  so  far  below  the  top. 

(p)  Indicates  the  course  of  the  vents  and  principle  involved  in 
ventilating  the  bath  and  lavatory  waste  pipes.  The  vent,  as  will 
be  seen  by  referring  to  the  diagram,  does  not  enter  the  soil  pipe 
a,  but  the  special  soil  pipe  /;,  and  at  a  point  above  the  connection 
of  the  waste  pipe,  which  also  enters  this  special  soil  pipe. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  sink,  laundry  tubs,  lavatory,  bath 
and  water-closets  are  all  unenclosed,  and  in  all  houses  of  recent 
building  this  plan  should  be  carried  out  to  the  letter.  The  con- 
veniences themselves  not  only  present  a  much  better  appearance 
than  when  enclosed,  but  it  enables  the  housewife  to  maintain 
cleanliness,  and  in  case  of  accident  facilitates  the  location  and 
repair  of  the  break. 

(r)  Shows  the  pipe  connecting  the  gully  trap  with  the  under 
drain. 

(s)  The  under  drain  leading  to  the  sewer  and  interrupted  by  a 
siphon  trap,  or  6"-trap. 

(s't  f)  Position  of  air  shaft  on  the  house  (d]  side  of  trap. 

Having  considered  the  system  most  generally  applied  in  the 
disposal  of  sewage,  the  water-carrier  system,  there  remains 
something  to  be  said  as  to  the  methods  which  have  been  devised 
for  the  handling  of  sewage  aside  from  that  of  the  water-carrier 
system  which  is  now  the  most  extensively  used. 

Shone  s  hydro-pneumatic  system  depends  for  its  efficiency 
upon  a  system  of  ejectors  by  means  of  which  the  sewage  is 
forced  along  iron  conduits  by  compressed  air.  \Yhile  there  are 
many  features  to  commend  this  system,  sanitary  engineers  have 
not  as  yet  made  the  attainment  of  sufficient  atmospheric  pres- 
sure of  such  cheapness  as  to  render  it  available  for  the  purpose 
intended  by  the  originator.  To  the  practical  sanitarian,  the  ob- 
stacles to  the  general  use  of  this  system  are  at  present  insur- 
mountable. The  difficulty  and  expense  in  creating  sufficient 
power,  the  cost  of  the  plant,  air-tight  conduits,  etc.,  the  annoy- 


3/6  HABITATIONS. 

ance,  if  not  positive  danger,  which  must  result  from  any  accident, 
such  as  clogging  or  leakage,  preclude  the  probability  of  its  be- 
coming generally  introduced.  The  system  might  be  of  advant- 
age where  it  is  necessary  to  force  the  sewage  over  a  distant  rise 
or  under  a  stream,  demanding  an  additional  vis  a  tergo  to  assist 
means  already  at  hand. 

T/ic  Conservancy  Methods.  In  the  conservancy  methods, 
attempts  have  been  made  to  avoid  the  extensive  sewage  systems 
demanded  for  the  water-carrier  system,  and  to  devise  some  means 
applicable  to  suburban  residences,  country  sites,  and  small  vil- 
lages and  towns.  Two  methods  are  available  :  (i)  The  midden 
or  privy  system  ;  (2)  the  pail  system.  Of  the  midden  or  privy 
system  very  little  can  be  said  as  to  any  good  feature  which  it 
may  possess.  As  usually  constructed,  it  is  worse  than  the 
cesspool  and  maintains  all  the  dangers  of  the  latter.  The  experi- 
ence, which  has  been  had  at  Salford,  Manchester,  Nottingham, 
and  Glasgow,  abroad,  and  in  numerous  country  residences  and 
suburban  villages  in  this  country,  has  proven  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  sanitarians  that  it  is  only  a  means  of  stowing  away  dan- 
gerous and  unsafe  material,  and  that  in  the  large  majority  of 
cases  it  is  less  safe,  more  expensive,  and  unpleasant  than  any 
other  system  making  a  pretense  to  sanitary  requirements. 

Promising  very  much  better  and  more  salutary  results,  the 
pail  system  has  been  comparatively  largely  used.  This  demands 
a  specially  constructed  closet  by  means  of  which  the  excreta 
falls  into  pails.  The  pail  may  be  of  wood  or  metal,  galvanized 
iron  being  most  generally  used.  The  proposition  has  been  made 
to  construct  these  pails  of  some  material  which  would  be  cheap 
and  destructible,  so  that  the  pail  and  its  contents  can  be  treated 
alike — incinerated,  if  necessary.  The  pail  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  air-tight  when  a  properly  fitted  lid  is  dropped 
down  upon  it.  If  of  wood,  the  pail  should  be  tarred  or  creo- 
soted  or  covered  with  other  impermeable  material  (on  its  in- 
terior). Quite  a  number  of  modifications  of  the  pail  system  have 
been  employed.  The  system  now  in  use  demands  two  pails,  one 
for  the  receiving  of  excreta  and  the  other  for  ashes  and  house 
refuse.  In  the  (iotix  system  there  is  pressed  into  the  pail  some 
absorbent  material,  such  as  hay  or  straw,  shoddy  fluff,  or  any 
allied  compound,  moulded  by  pressure  to  the  interior  of  the  pail. 


FIRE-PLUGS,    ROADS,    AND    GUTTKRS.  377 

Into  this  the  excreta  may  all  go,  including  the  urine,  the  ashes 
and  house  refuse  being  received  into  another  pail,  and  in  some 
localities  the  dry  household  waste  and  ashes  are  added  to  the 
excreta,  the  garbage  being  kept  separate. 

In  Moule's  system,  a  self-acting  closet  is  used,  by  means  ot 
which  the  requisite  quantity  of  dry  earth  or  ashes  is  discharged 
into  the  pail  each  time  that  it  is  used.  In  the  consideration  <>t 
the  disposal  of  this  material  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter 
on  Sewage. 

Fire-plugs,  Roads,  and  Gutters. 

Fire-plugs  should  play  an  all-important  part  in  the  cleaning 
of  our  streets,  gutters,  and  drains,  besides  the  uses  for  which 
they  at  present  stand.  And  the  principle  which  the  authors 
advocate  is : — 

First.  To  have  all  roads  or  streets  laid  slightly  elliptic  and 
covered  with  either  asphalt,  vitrified  brick,  or  Belgian  blocks. 
The  elliptic  form  naturally  throws  off  the  water  to  the  sides, 
where  a  gutter  or  conduit  should  be  formed  by  a  slightly  in- 
verted channel  of  a  width  of  ten  to  twelve  inches,  laid  with  a 
good  concrete  bottom  of  four  inches,  with  a  top  surface  of  two 
inches  of  the  best  asphalt,  and  so  laid  that  from  the  middle  of 
the  square  it  should  fall  with  a  slight  down-grade  of  one  in  two 
hundred  and  fifty  toward  either  end,  or  corner  of  the  street. 

Second.  The  fire-plug  should  be  placed  directly  over  this  ele- 
vated point  in  the  middle  of  the  block,  and  not  at  the  street 
corner.  This  would  serve  its  full  purpose  in  case  of  fire,  as  all 
hose  carried  by  our  fire  department  is  sufficient  in  length  to 
traverse  the  distance  between  the  center  of  the  square,  or  block, 
to  the  street  corner  in  case  of  fire  at  the  corner. 

Again,  every  morning  or  night  the  plug  could  be  turned  or 
opened  to  its  full  capacity,  and  this  would  flush  the  gutter, 
carrying  all  refuse  down  the  smooth  surfaced  gutters  to  the 
sewer-trap  or  cesspool  located  at  the  street  corner. 

Third.  The  sewer-trap  receiving  this  water,  instead  of  being 
left  open,  as  is  now  the  case,  should  be  screened  with  a  strongly 
perforated  trap  front,  to  prevent  unnecessary  matter  and  refuse 
being  swept  clown  into  the  sewer-trap  below. 

The  catch-pit  would  not  necessarily  be  so  large,  as  the  quantity 
of  sediment  being  swept  down  would  perforce  be  less. 
24 


378  HABITATIONS. 

The  question  of  the  city's  ability  to  give  the  required  supply 
of  water  is  one  we  must  leave  to  the  local  authorities  to  deter- 
mine. 

Assuming  Philadelphia  to  have  1151  miles  of  street,  and 
counting  eight  squares  to  the  mile,  we  have  9208  squares.  Now 
to  flush  the  gutters  it  would  be  necessary  to  use  not  less  than 
2OO  gallons  to  the  side  of  each  square,  or  800  gallons  for  the 
four  sides  of  the  square,  necessitating  a  supply  of  not  less  than 
seven  million  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  four  hundred 
(7,366,400)  gallons  per  dicni,  while  for  ordinary  consumption 
the  city  needs  not  less  than  fifty  million  (50,000,000)  gallon.'-.* 

With  the  street  cleaning  little  or  nothing  can  be  said  except 
that  it  would  be  well  to  remember  that  while  the  city  pays  every 
year  thousands  of  dollars  for  the  cleaning  of  the  streets,  it  again 
pays  double  to  have  the  refuse  of  the  drains  taken  out  under 
separate  contracts,  or,  in  other  words,  paying  to  have  the  dirt 
taken  out  that  has  unnecessarily  been  swept  down  the  sewers 
from  a  lack  of  ordinary  precaution,  in  not  having  the  drain-traps 
protected. t 

The  main  sewer  would  act  as  the  conveying  line  from  all 
houses,  and  if,  as  has  been  stated,  the  distributing  drain  should 
be  laid  with  a  slightly  down  grade  of  one  in  forty,  there  can 
scarcely  be  a  question  of  our  having  any  other  than  good  drain- 
age. And  the  amount  of  pure  water  expended  in  flushing  the 
gutters  would  not  be  lost,  since  it  would  have  double  value,  first 
in  cooling  the  streets  and  cleaning  the  gutter  conduits,  but  that 
amount  of  water  would  also  serve  to  maintain  in  our  sewers  a 
better  atmosphere,  and  would  force  the  bad  drains  more  quickly 
through  their  respective  functions  to  the  outlets. + 

Here,  again,  the  question  of  using  glass  drain  pipes  might  be 
discussed,  and  this  promises  to  be  one  of  the  great  products  of 
Indiana's  progressive  vein. 

*  Chicago  has  a  capacity  of  3,000,000,000  gallons  daily,  although  the  average 
consumption  is  about  2oo,coo,oco  gallons,  leaving  a  good  margin  for  emergencies. 

f  This  is  assumed  from  an  article  prepared  l>y  the  author  in  1889. 

£  This  system  has  been  found  to  work  in  a  very  praiseworthy  manner  in  Berlin, 
Upper  Silesia,  and  Frankfort.  In  the  summer-time,  when  the  thermometer  stands  at 
0,5-100°  and  103°  F.,  the  plugs  would  he  turned  on  at  3  r.  M.,  thus  cooling  the  parched 
streets  and  rendering  purer  the  air  ol  the  city.  This  applies  also  in  p.ut  to  the  system 
of  sewerage  in  Paris. 


SANITARY    INSPECTION    OF    DWELLINGS.  379 

SANITARY  INSPECTION  OF  DWELLINGS. 
Every  doctor  should  be  able  to  make  an  intelligent  investi"a- 

»  o  ri 

lion  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  a  dwelling.  That  the  investi- 
gation may  be  of  value  it  must  be  done  systematically.  The 
inspector  should  make  note  of  the  following:  I.  Date  of  inspec- 
tion ;  2.  TJie  number  and  situation  of  the  house  \  3.  Xainc  of  the 
owner;  4.  Name  of  the  occupant ;  5.  Number  of  occupants ;  6. 
The  capacity  of  the  house ;  7.  I<rcc  space  in  front  and  back  of 
house ;  8.  Condition  of  yard,  alleys,  etc. ;  9.  Xature  of  water- 
supply  ;  10.  Outside  drains  ;  \\.  Cesspools, privies,  etc.  ;  \2.  Nuis- 
ances; 13.  Condition  of  drainage  and  spouting ;  14.  Cellar;  15. 
Number  of  living  rooms  and  their  condition  ;  16.  Number  of 
sleeping-rooms,  their  cubic  space  and  condition ;  17.  Closet  ac- 
commodation and  batli  rooms ;  18.  Method  of  ventilation  and 
lieating ;  19.  Number  and  condition  of  windows ;  20.  Condition 
of  floors  and  stairways  ;  21.  Condition  of  walls;  22.  Condition  of 
roof ;  23.  General  condition  of  premises  las  to  repair  and  clean- 
liness. 

The  free  space  in  front  and  back  of  dwellings  should  always 
be  sufficient  to  secure  good  lighting  and  thorough  ventilation. 
Small,  illy  ventilated  and  poorly  lighted  spaces  around  dwell- 
ings are  almost  invariably  found  to  be  repositories  of  dirt  and 
all  manner  of  filth.  Persons  compelled  to  breathe  the  befouled 
air  of  these  spaces  suffer  with  ulcerated  sore  throat,  bronchitis, 
follicular  tpnsilitis,  follicular  stomatitis,  diarrhea  and  dysentery, 
erysipelas,  carbuncles,  abcesses ;  further,  these  repositories  of 
filth  are  most  conducive  to  the  propagation  and  spread  of  tuber- 
culosis, pneumonia,  diphtheria,  typhus  fever,  and  typhoid  fever. 
From  a  sanitary  point,  back-to-back  houses  are  objectionable. 

The  yards  and  alleys  about  the  house  should  be  well  paved, 
and  the  grade  of  the  paving  such  as  to  secure  the  rapid  removal 
of  roof  and  surface  water. 

The  nature  of  the  water  supply  must  always  be  particularly 
inquired  into.  When  the  water  supply  is  obtained  from  a  well, 
the  construction  of  the  well  should  first  receive  due  considera- 
tion and  the  inspector  should  see  that  it  is  properly  constructed, 
covered,  a.nd  ventilated.  (See  deep  and  shallow  wells.)  .Atten- 
tion should  then  be  directed  to  the  proximity  of  cesspools,  mid- 


380  HABITATIONS. 

dens,  privies,  manure  heaps,  stables,  and  other  probable  or  possi- 
ble sources  of  pollution. 

If  tanks  or  cisterns  are  employed  for  the  storing  of  water,  the 
inspection  thereof  is  first  to  be  directed  so  as  to  determine 
whether  the  construction  and  situation  are  such  as  are  required. 
It  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  tank  or  cistern  should  be  water- 
tight. To  test  the  soundness  of  such  reservoirs,  fill  them  in  the 
evening  with  water  ;  then  cut  off  all  sources  of  supply  and  exit 
and  in  the  morning  see  if  the  water  has  fallen. 

There  are  several  potent  objections  to  unsound  reservoirs,  any 
one  of  which  would  be  sufficient  to  condemn  :  i.  Leaky  tanks  will 
not  hold  their  full  quota  of  water.  2.  As  the  water  escapes  it  sat- 
urates everything  within  reach.  If  the  reservoir  is  at  the  top  of 
the  house,  the  walls  and  often  the  ceilings  are  constantly  wet ; 
if  under  or  close  to  the  house,  the  foundations  are  always  damp. 
Breaks  in  the  reservoir,  by  affording  a  means  of  ingress  to  foul 
air  or  contaminated  water,  increase  the  dangers  of  pollution. 
Although  it  is  important  that  tanks  and  cisterns  be  covered  and 
protected,  to  prevent  cats,  rats,  and  other  household  plagues  from 
sporting  or  seeking  a  watery  grave  therein,  it  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  ventilation  is  equally  important.  The  overflow  pipe 
should  never  be  directly  connected  with  the  soil  pipe.  Direct 
connection  allows  sewer  gas  to  escape  into  the  reservoir  and  into 
the  house,  polluting  the  water  and  vitiating  the  air.  The  pipes 
leading  to  the  bath  and  closets  should  all  be  disconnected  by 
efficient  traps. 

Water  drawn  from  public  mains  has  in  it  dangers  peculiarly 
its  own,  and  the  cause  is  seldom  to  be  found  within  the  house. 
Leaky  pipes,  fault}'  connections,  blind  extremities  to  pipes,  direct 
communication  with  closets,  waste  water  preventers  and  soil 
pipes  are  all  to  be  looked  for  and  when  found  condemned. 

Outside  drains,  that  is  drains  connecting  the  house  sewage 
system  with  the  main  sewer,  should  always  be  trapped  before 
entering  the  house;  they  should  be  ventilated,  and  tested  to 
determine  if  any  leaks  exist.  Leak}'  drains,  especially  when 
situated  close  to  wells,  are  a  constant  menace  to  health.  Cess- 
pools, deep  ash  pits,  privies,  or  middens,  when  placed  close  to  a 
house  or  well,  taint  the  air  and  pollute  the  water,  and  thus  en- 
gender those  diseases  and  depraved  conditions  of  the  constitu- 


DRAINAGE    AND    SPOUTING.  381 

tion  which  attend  vitiated  air  and  impure  water.  Strict  attention, 
therefore,  should  always  be  paid  to  the  condition  and  situation 
of  these  (sometimes)  necessary  nuisances.  Sporadic  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  can  in  many  cases  be  traced  to  pollution  of  the 
water  from  cesspools,  etc.,  and  leaky  drains. 

Pig-styes,  pig  wash  cisterns,  manure  heaps,  cattle  yards,  close- 
to  dwellings  and  water  supply  in  rural  and  suburban  districts, 
and  poorly  kept  courts,  filthy  streets  and  gutters  in  urban  dis- 
tricts are  nuisances  which  constantly  threaten  public  health. 

The  drainage  and  spouting  of  dwellings  should  be  equal  to 
any  demand  that  may  be  made  upon  them.  The  spouting  for 
carrying  away  roof  water  should  be  tight,  for  as  it  usually  runs 
along  an  outside  wall,  any  leak  will  make  damp  walls,  and  in 
addition  to  ruining  the  walls  will  give  rise  to  conditions  favoring 
the  development  of  rheumatism,  bronchitis,  and  other  lung  affec- 
tions, including  phthisis.  In  inspecting  a  drainage  or  sewage  sys- 
tem of  a  house,  the  under-drain  and  all  communications  there- 
with should  be  freely  exposed  to  view.  The  main  drain  will 
usually  be  found  to  pass  under  the  cellar.  First  determine  if  the 
drain  be  badly  laid  or  constructed,  and  if  so,  condemn  it  and 
advise  the  construction  of  a  proper  one.  If  the  drain  be  properly 
laid  and  constructed,  test  it  as  to  soundness.  To  do  this  stop 
up  the  lower  end  of  the  drain  and  fill  it  with  water;  then  note 
whether  the  water  falls  and  the  rapidity  of  the  fall.  To  test 
whether  deposition  of  a  solid  matter  has  occurred,  pour  in  a 
large  quantity  of  water  at  a  sink  or  water-closet ;  then  if  the 
water,  as  it  flows  from  the  under-drain,  is  foul  and  thick,  deposi- 
tion has  occurred  and  the  drain  in  consequence  thereof  should 
be  condemned. 

To  locate  breaks  in  drains  first  close  the  ventilating  shafts; 
pour  in  a  few  ounces  of  the  oil  of  peppermint  and  then  some 
hot  water;  the  odoriferous  and  volatile  principles  will  be  quickly 
liberated  and  fill  the  pipes.  The  characteristic  odor  will  easily 
be  detected  wherever  it  escapes.  A  better  test  may  be  applied 
by  filling  the  pipes  with  smoke  from  an  asphyxiator  or  smoke 
rocket,  care  being  taken  to  close  all  ventilating  shafts  and  to 
clean  out  the  traps.  The  escape  of  hydrogen  sulphid  may  be 
detected  by  passing  along  close  to  the  pipes  strips  of  paper  moist- 
ened with  a  solution  of  lead  acetate.  Hydrogen  sulphid  com- 


382  HABITATIONS. 

ing  in  contact  with  lead  acetate  forms  the  lead  sulphid  which  ap- 
pears on  the  strips  as  a  black  precipitate.  House  drains  must 
always  be  efficiently  disconnected  from  the  sewer  and  ventilated 
on  the  house  side  of  the  trap.  All  traps  and  all  subdivisions  of 
the  under-drain  must  be  carefully  examined.  If  any  cesspools 
are  discovered  they  must  be  condemned. 

The  soil  and  branch  pipes  should  run  along  the  outside  of  the 
house.  From  the  drain  and  running  alongside  of  the  soil  pipe 
there  should  be  a  ventilating  shaft  having  a  diameter  the  same 
as  that  of  the  soil  pipe  and  opening  above  the  roof. 

Cellars  demand  a  strict  investigation.  They  should  have  an 
impermeable  floor.  The  walls  and  floor  should  be  clean  and 
dry.  Cellars  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated  and  all  dark 
corners  and  grottoes  should  be  closely  examined.  Deep  ash  pits 
are  sometimes  found  in  cellars,  and  when  found  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  out  and  the  pit  filled  to  a  level  with  the  floor. 

The  gas  plumbing  is  very  important,  and  leaks,  whether  due  to 
imperfect  connections  or  breaks  in  the  pipes,  are  usually  detected 
by  the  inmates  and  promptly  attended  to.  The  stop-cocks  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  their  turning  but  half-way  round. 
This  is  to  prevent  persons  turning  the  cock  completely  around, 
when,  though  they  put  out  the  light,  the  gas  streams  forth  at 
full  head. 

When  inspecting  the  living  rooms,  particular  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  plumbing.  Blind  ends  to  the  water  pipes  are 
potent  factors  in  endemic  and  sporadic  cases  of  typhoid  fever. 
In  the  blind  ends  of  water  pipes  sedimentation  is  almost  con- 
stantly taking  place,  and  when  the  bacillus  typhosus  is  deposited 
therein  such  desirable  facilities  are  afforded  for  the  nourishment 
and  pullulation  of  the  organism  that  an  outbreak  of  the  disease 
is  all  but  sure  to  occur. 

The  waste  pipes  from  sinks  should  never  be  connected  with 
the  soil  pipe,  but  should  discharge  outside  the  house  and  upon 
a  trapped  grating  which  communicates  with  the  drain.  The 
sink  and  laundry  tubs  should  be  thoroughly  flushed  with  hot 
water,  and  in  the  absence  of  hot  water  use  cold  after  the  morn- 
ing's work  of  house  cleaning,  and  at  least  twice  a  week  dissolve 
half  a  pound  of  common  washing  soda  in  four  or  five  quarts  of 
boiling  water  and  let  this  run  down  the  sinks  ;  it  quickly  re- 
moves anv  sediment  or  accumulation  of  grease. 


VENTILATION — BATH-ROOM.  383 

The  condition  of  the  larder,  closets,  etc.,  is  to  be  closely  noted, 
and  if  the  soil  pipe  passes  through  them,  suitable  alteration 
should  be  suggested.  In  sleeping  rooms,  the  lighting,  heating, 
and  ventilation  are  of  first  importance.  A  sleeping  room  should 
never  be  heated  through  another  room  or  hallway.  Sleeping 
rooms  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  and  windows  alone  are 
not  sufficient.  If  no  open  fireplace  or  communications  with  the 
flue  exist,  other  means  must  be  provided  to  secure  thorough  ven- 
tilation. It  is  important  that  the  dimension  of  rooms,  and  espe- 
cially of  sleeping  rooms,  should  be  accurately  measured.  The 
height  of  a  room  should  be  at  least  ten  feet.  The  cubic  space  of 
sleeping  rooms  and  number  of  people  that  sleep  therein  should 
be  determined.  Billings  gives  as  the  minimum  of  cubic  space 
to  be  allotted  to  each  individual  the  following,  which  is  practi- 
cally that  adopted  by  many  Health  Boards  : — 

In  common  lodging  or  tenement  house, 300  cu.  ft. 

In  school-room,  office  for  clerks,  etc 250    "    " 

In  barracks  for  soldiers  or  police, 600    "    '• 

In  an  ordinary  hospital  ward, 1000    '•     " 

In  a  fever,  surgical,  or  obstetric  ward, 1400    "     '' 

In  estimating  cubic  space  height  of  ceilings  above  twelve  feet 
is  not  considered.  If  there  is  any  danger  of  overcrowding,  the 
occupants  should  be  warned,  that  they  may  make  a  change  in 
time  to  escape  or  to  correct  the  evils  attendant  upon  this  condi- 
tion. Water-closets  in  sleeping  apartments  are  great  evils  and 
should  be  discountenanced. 

The  bath-room  should  not  be  a  musty,  illy  ventilated  or 
poorly  lighted  little  space  under  the  stairs  or  in  some  out-of-the 
way  corner  of  the  house,  but  a  fairly  good  sized,  well  lighted  and 
well  ventilated  room.  The  water-closet  is  usually  placed  in  the 
bath-room  and  it  should  abut  against  the  outside  wall  ;  the  hopper 
should  be  one  of  recent  design,  and  all  pan,  long,  and  short  hop- 
pers condemned.  The  trap  should  be  a  good  one  and  provided 
with  an  anti-siphonage  tube  and  inspection  inlet.  The  water 
for  the  closet  should  be  supplied  from  a  waste  water  preventer. 
The  waste  water  preventer  should  be  supplied  with  water  from  a 
system  independent  or  thoroughly  disconnected  from  the  general 
supply  system  of  the  house,  and  return  current  prevented  by  a 
valve.  The  waste  pipes  from  the  bath  should  not  enter  the  .^oil 


384  HABITATIONS. 

pipe,  but  should  discharge  with  the  sink  pipe  upon  an  outside 
trapped  grating.  Again  must  the  plumbing  be  carefully  exam- 
ined, and  what  has  already  been  adduced  is  here  equally  appli- 
cable. 

If  there  is  a  heater  in  the  cellar,  it  should  be  determined 
whether  it  is  fed  by  the  soil  or  external  air.  Properly  con- 
structed heaters  are  supplied  with  external  air,  usually  by  means 
of  a  shaft  communicating  with  the  outside.  The  shaft  should  be 
provided  with  some  device  to  arrest  the  suspended  particles  in 
the  air. 

Baltimore  heaters  are  in  bad  repute  among  sanitarians,  for, 
placed  as  they  are  in  one  of  the  living  or  sleeping  compartments 
they  heat  a  second  or  third  compartment  by  discharging  into  the 
latter  the  heated  vitiated  air  of  the  former.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens that  Baltimore  heaters  have  a  shaft  communicating  with  the 
outside  air,  which  supplies  them  with  fresh  air.  In  such  in- 
stances the  objection  adduced  is  not  tenable. 

Windows  should  always  be  arranged  that  they  may  be  opened 
and  easily  removed.  The  window  space  of  a  room  should  not 
be  less  than  one-tenth  that  of  the  floor  space,  and  every  room, 
however  small,  should  have  at  least  one  window  opening  into  the 
external  air. 

The  walls  of  dwellings  should  be  constructed,  whenever  pos- 
sible, of  some  incombustible  material.  There  should  be  a  damp- 
proof  course  (see  Habitations)  in  each  wall.  As  damp  walls  are 
a  prolific  cause  of  rheumatism,  bronchitis,  etc.,  it  devolves  upon 
builders  and  inspectors  to  take  such  precautions  as  will  prevent 
the  penetration  of  the  walls  by  water.  When  houses  have  single 
outside  walls  driving  wet  easily  penetrates;  the  walls,  therefore, 
should  be  coated  with  some  impermeable  material,  when  such 
dangers  are  imminent. 

The  spaces  beneath  the  lowest  story  and  between  the  floors 
and  ceilings  should  be  freely  ventilated,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ac- 
cumulation of  damp,  rank  air  and  the  rotting  of  the  joists  and 
flooring.  The  stairway  should  be  so  situated  that  it  may  be 
light  and  airy  and  should  always  be  in  repair.  The  space 
beneath  the  roof,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  the  attic,  should  be 
freely  ventilated  and  kept  scrupulously  clean.  If  the  water  tank 
or  cistern  is  placed  in  the  attic  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  that 


UNSANITARY    AKCHITKCTUKE. 


3*5 


FIG.  124. 


such  precaution  should  have  been  taken  in  the  building  as  will 
facilitate  lighting,  ventilation,  and  cleansing  of  both  tank  and 
attic. 

Foul  odors  are  not  always  indicative  of  the  escape  of  sewer 
gas  or  emanations  from  near-by  wells  or  cesspools,  but  frequently 
attest  the  presence  of  decaying  animal  bodies.  As  it  sometimes 
happens,  rats  and  cats  die  in  the  wells,  under  the  floors,  or  gain 
entrance  into  the  drums  of  heaters,  and  the  horrible  odors  from 
their  bodies  are  diffused  throughout  the  house. 

In  conclusion,  note  should  be  made  of  the  general  condition 
of  the  house.  That  cleanliness  is  one  of  the  fundamental  laws 
of  hygiene  and  health,  should  never  be  forgotten  when  inspect- 
ing a  dwelling.  As  we  pass  from  cellar  to  roof,  the  strictest 
lookout  should  be  maintained  so  as  to  detect  any  manner  of 
filth. 

The  flagrant  uses  of  small  spaces  may  be  seen  by  the  plans 
below,  made  during  the  inspection  of  a  house  on  Mount  Vernon 
Street.  Here,  every  known 
danger  is  apparent  and 
readily  proves  the  condi- 
tion of  things  existing  and 
the  builders'  ability  to  pass 
upon  the  public  that  which 
should  be  forthwith  con- 
demned by  the  sanitary 
authorities. 

The  house  in  question 
is  one  with  a  frontage  of 
15  feet  6  inches  and  is  38 
feet  deep.  A,  represents 
the  hallway  which  is  about 
2  feet  6  or  10  inches;  on 
the  right,  marked  B,  is  the 
parlor  ;  C,  is  the  box  stair- 
way with  risers  about  7^4 
or  8  inches,  having  not  less 
than  1 3  steps  to  the  second 
floor.  D,  is  the  dining- 
room,  size  about  12x9  feet,  and  opens  directly  into  kitchen,  E, 


-*c 


J'arlo/' 
3. 


L 


UNSANITARY   Hoi: 


386  HABITATIONS. 

with  a  width  of  4  feet  6  inches  at  the  one  end  and  5  feet  6 
inches  at  the  other ;  in  the  center  will  be  seen  the  range,  with 
the  cupboard  and  sink  at  the  side  ;  the  kitchen  range  projects 
out  on  the  kitchen  floor  at  least  2  feet  3  inches,  so  that  the  reader 
may  readily  determine  how  much  space  there  is  between  this 
and  the  window,  about  2  feet  5  inches,  while  at  the  point  marked 
F,  is  the  water-closet,  with  lines  showing  the  angle  of  the 
kitchen  and  water-closet  doors.  H,  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
kitchen  door  is  a  sink  which  receives  the  waste  water  from  the 
bath-room.  The  letter  I  designates  the  hydrant  and  gully.  The 
outer  wall  of  the  kitchen  is  composed  merely  of  clapboards  and 
tar  paper.  This  needs  no  comment,  but  sympathy  should  be  ex- 
tended to  the  suffering  tenants.  In  this,  vegetables  and  other 
things  are  stored,  washing  done,  food  cooked,  and  this  closely 
upon  the  water-closet,  as  will  be  seen  from  sketched  plan.  Indeed, 
so  narrow  is  the  space  that  as  one  opens  the  kitchen  door  it  is 
thrust  at  an  angle  sharply  against  the  water-closet  door,  and  in 
order  to  get  in  the  closet,  it  is  necessary  to  half  close  the  one 
door  before  opening  the  other. 

The  closet  is  probably  not  more  than  two  feet  square,  with  an 
old  fashioned  pan,  slender-necked;  such  an  arrangement  cannot 
serve  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  convey  to  the  kitchen  the  odor 
from  the  excreta  and  slops,  and  in  turn  affect  the  food  and  water. 

It  is  impossible  to  open  the  back  door  without  admitting  a 
current  of  foul  air  into  the  kitchen,  which  in  turn  diffuses  with 
the  warm  air  and  is  driven  through  the  house. 

According  to  the  supplemented  act,  approved  in  1885,  the  law 
demands  that  a  space  of  not  less  than  twelve  feet  square  be  left 
in  the  rear  of  the  house.* 

*  "  Every  new  dwelling  house  shall  also  have  an  open  space  attached  to  it  in  the  rear 
or  at  the  side,  equal  to  at  least  twelve  feet  square  ;  and  no  building  of  any  kind  shall 
be  permitted  to  be  erected  on  any  street,  court,  or  alley,  hereafter  to  be  laid  out,  and  if 
laid  out  and  wholly  unimproved  by  brick  or  stone  buildings  before  the  passage  of  this 
act,  of  a  less  width  than  twenty-live  feet ;  and  every  builder  or  owner  who  shall  here- 
after build  otherwise  than  as  aforesaid,  shall  pay  to  the  said  city  one  hundred  dollars, 
to  be  recovered  with  costs,  as  debts  of  that  amount  may  by  law  be  recovered,  and  shall 
also  be  restrained  by  injunction  from  so  building  ;  or  if  having  so  built  after  the  passage 
of  this  act,  from  the  continuance  of  such  building  contrary  to  the  requirements  of  this 
act,  and  shall  pay  all  the  expenses  of  such  alterations  which  the  court  may  decree  to  lie 
made.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Commissioners  of  Highways  to  give  notice  to  the 
T'ity  Solicitor  of  all  violations  of  this  act.'' — Pliila.  Ke£iilntions. 


HOUSE    INSPECTION.  387 

Again  we  find  the  closet  of  a  cheap  and  inferior  kind,  incased 
in  woodwork,  and  an  inspection  would  doubtless  bring  to  light  a 
leakage  or  an  accumulation  under  the  seat  of  stale  urine  and 
rotten  boards,  fit  hiding  place  for  vermin,  infectious  materials  and 
bad  odors.  Again,  there  is  an  insufficient  water  flush,  and  this 
allows  the  pan  to  become  browned  with  the  remaining  excreta. 

Here,  too,  arises  the  question  of  drain  pipes;  a  four-inch  pipe 
would  be  sufficiently  large  to  carry  away  the  sewage  from  the 
house,  and  in  event  of  a  larger  one,  say,  4 y,  or  6-inch  pipe,  being 
used  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  the  limited  water  flow  is 
sufficient  flushing  power.  A  danger  often  arises  from  this  source  ; 
the  pipe  being  too  large  allows  of  an  accumulation  in  the  soil 
pipe  which  the  inferior  or  small  supply  of  water  is  unable  to 
carry  away. 

The  question  often  arises  as  to  whether  the  waste  pipe  from 
the  sink  does  not  communicate  with  the  soil  pipe  of  the  closet ;  if 
so,  this  will  prove  an  everlasting  source  of  evil,  since  the  odor 
will  arise  and  permeate  the  atmosphere  of  the  kitchen  night  and 
dav. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SEWAGE. 

The  term  selvage  as  ordinarily  used  is  intended  to  imply  mate- 
rial ordinarily  conducted  away  by  means  of  sewers.  These  re- 
ceive the  material  from  the  following  sources  :  I.  Surface  drain- 
age by  means  of  inlets,  usually  imperfectly  trapped,  and  carrying 
the  water  from  the  streets  and  immediate  neighborhood  of  habi- 
tations. 2.  Waste  and  used  water  from  household,  manufac- 
tories, etc.  3.  Excreta.  As  any  and  all  of  these  may  contain 
elements  injurious  to  health,  it  is  desirous  as  early  as  possible  to 
secure  their  removal  as  far  from  the  habitation  as  may  be  consist- 
ent with  man's  surroundings.  As  maintained  in  the  chapter  on 
Habitations,  it  is  probable  that  all  surface  water  and  all  house 
refuse  water  should  be  treated  alike,  and  the  sewage  system 
should  be  kept  separate  and  distinct.  Besides  this  there  must 
of  necessity  be  accumulated  materials  which  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  conduct  through  sewage.  These  materials  are  variously 
known  as  garbage,  house  refuse,  by-products,  and  waste  (house); 
they  include  solids,  waste  coming  from  the  kitchen,  and  very 
probably  such  portions  of  street  dirt  and  refuse  as  may  not  find 
its  way  into  the  inlets.  Such  material  is  ordinarily  known  as 
street  dirt. 

At  one  time  in  Philadelphia  and  in  New  York  the  garbage 
was  used  to  fill  in  bulk-heads  and  embankments,  and  afterward 
these  became  the  site  of  habitations  ;  condemnation  of  such  and 
similar  methods  cannot  be  too  strong.  Many  methods  have 
been  devised  for  handling  this  class  of  waste  products,  but  without 
entering  into  the  discussions  which  have  arisen,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  destruction  by  heat  affords  the  easiest  and  safest  solu- 
tion of  this  difficult  problem. 

For  the  incineration  of  garbage  quite  a  number  of  furnaces 
have  been  devised,  and  several  methods  have  been  found  emi- 
nently successful.  Two  having  been  found  very  useful  in  Eng- 
land are  the  Whiley  Destructor  and  Fryer's  Incinerating  Furnace. 

38,X 


INCINERATION    OF    GARBAGE.  389 

The  Kngle  Cremator  has  been  in  successful  operation  for 
several  years.  The  difficulty  which  first  aro^c  in  construction 
of  crematories  of  this  type,  namely  the  difficulty  in  securing 
sufficient  draft,  has  been  overcome  by  increasing  the  height  of 
the  stacks,  and  in  some  cases  by  a  forced  draft  of  steam  gener- 
ated through  the  heat  given  off  during  the  burning  of  the  garbage. 

The  Dowling  process  is  now  in  successful  operation  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  from  personal  observation  the  writers  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  it  is  eminently  successful.  The  only  matter  worthy 
of  consideration  is  the  outlay  and  expense  of  maintenance. 
The  heat  is  generated  by  means  of  oil  forced  in  through  a 
peculiarly  fitted  siphon  and  pressure  steam  jet.  The  oil  used 
is  ordinary  crude  oil,  a  product  of  but  little  value.  The  jets 
burn  directly  on  and  in  the  garbage,  maintaining  a  temperature 
which  rapidly  secures  perfect  incineration.  Before  being  thrown 
into  the  furnace  the  garbage  is  pressed  through  a  system  of  rol- 
lers by  which  it  is  freed  of  water,  and  prior  to  which  solid  mate- 
rials, such  as  pieces  of  rock,  brick,  stone,  iron,  etc.,  are  picked 
out.  At  present,  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  no  means  are  at 
hand  for  the  disinfection  of  the  water  which  passes  off  from  the 
garbage.  We  are  promised,  however,  in  the  near  future,  that 
disinfecting  tanks  will  be  constructed  for  the  receiving  of  the  by- 
product, and  in  these  tanks  deodorants  and  disinfectants  will  be 
added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  insure  the  destruction  of  any  in- 
fectious material,  and,  possibly,  an  efficient  deodorization.  In 
these  incineratories,  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  excreta 
collected  by  the  pail  system  should  not  be  incinerated  along 
with  the  garbage,  or,  by  especially  constructed  furnaces,  be  in- 
cinerated separately. 

The  final  disposition  of  sewage  is  a  matter  of  rapidly  increas- 
ing sanitary  interest.  The  addition  to  streams  of  rapidly  increas- 
ing quantities  of  sewage  is  progressively  intensifying  the  dangers 
which  it  should  be  the  object  of  all  sanitarians  to  abolish.  At 
one  time,  when  it  was  supposed  that  water  purified  itself,  the 
danger  of  adding  to  streams  the  offal  from  towns  had  not  the 
recognized  importance  which  the  recent  advances  in  the  microbic 
origin  of  disease  has  given  it.  \Yhere  we  have  streams  supply- 
ing water  to  a  succession  of  towns  situated  along  their  banks,  all 

O  £•» 

discharging  their  sewage  into  the  stream,  there  is  little  prospect 


390  SEWAGE. 

that  the  one  receiving  the  last  supply  of  water  can  escape  any 
infectious  disease,  which  it  is  supposed  can  be  communicated  by 
water  supplied,  in  consequence  of  its  presence  in  one  of  the 
villages  higher  up  the  stream.  In  other  words,  the  stream  has 
been  turned  into  a  sewer  in  which  the  sewage  receives  a  more  or 
less  definite  or  irregular  dilution. 

Not  only  is  this  true  of  streams,  but  where  sewage  is  being 
thrown  directly  into  tide-water,  and  the  same  is  equally  true  of 
garbage,  the  shore  soon  becomes  strewn  with  materials  which 

o  o     T 

otherwise  would  not  have  ever  presented  themselves.  This  is 
true  not  only  of  towns  immediately  on  the  coast  where  salt 
water  is  presumed  to  exert  a  certain  purifying  influence,  but 
inlets  and  bays  in  which  the  tide  flows  up  into  the  fresh  water 
areas  suffer  doubly  from  the  reception  of  sewage.  In  the  first 
place,  the  great  tendency  towards  the  sea  gives  rise  to  the  same 
difficulty  to  those  towns  nearer  the  ocean,  and  the  inflowing 
tide,  no  doubt,  carries  the  sewage  higher  up  and  discharges  it 
possibly  into  water  inlets  above  the  point  of  sewage  entry.  As 
an  example  of  this,  we  have  the  fact  that  at  one  time  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  took  a  certain  quantity  of  its  water-supply  from 
what  was  known  as  the  Kensington  Water  Works,  situated  at  the 
extreme  northern  limit  of  the  city.  There  was  every  reason  to 
believe,  and  few  reasons  to  doubt,  that  the  water  taken  in  by  the 
Kensington  Water  Works  and  distributed  over  certain  portions 
of  the  city  contained  infectious  materials  which  had  been  carried 
upward  by  the  water  current  from  the  streams  below,  the  reflux 
beiny  due  to  the  tidal  flow  twice  each  dav.  This  was  demon- 

o  f 

strated  on  one  or  two  occasions  when  outbreaks  of  typhoid 
fever  occurred,  sharply  outlined  over  the  area  receiving  its 
water  supply  from  the  Delaware  and  not  over  the  general  areas 
in  which  the  source  of  the  water  was  the  Schuylkill  River. 

This  disturbance  of  riparian  rights  and  the  rapid  infection 
of  streams  has  been  gradually  acquiring  such  distinct  import- 
ance as  to  lead  sanitarians  to  make  an  effort  to  dispose  of  sewage 
without  discharging  it,  in  its  infectious  condition,  into  streams  ; 
as  a  result  of  this  several  more  or  less  successful  methods  have 
been  devised.  These  practically  all  amount  to  one  of  the  four 
processes  :  Sedimentation,  Precipitation,  Filtration,  and 
Disruption. 


SEDIMENTATION    AND    PRECIPITATION.  39 1 

Sedimentation.  In-  sedimentation  the  process  deviled  is 
dependent  for  its  efficiency  upon  storage  in  large  tanks  for  suffi- 
cient-length of  time  to  allow  the  suspected  matter  to  subside,  when 
the  supernatant  fluid  is  drawn  off  and  the  residue  treated  as  will 
hereafter  be  described  as  sludge.  This  process  is  too  slow  and 
is  not  available  during  certain  seasons  in  the  year  when  the  high 
temperature  facilitates  decomposition,  and  besides  the  effluent  is 
never  of  sufficient  purity  to  be  safely  freed. 

Precipitation.  This  depends  for  its  efficiency  upon  the  ad- 
dition of  chemical  agents  to  hasten  the  deposit,  which  does  not 
take  place  in  the  tanks  with  sufficient  rapidity  during  the  process 
of  sedimentation.  In  order  to  obtain  satisfactory  results  by  the 
precipitation  method  the  sewage  should  be  delivered  as  early  as 
possible,  before  decomposition  takes  place,  into  the  tanks  where 
it  is  to  receive  treatment.  After  passing  through  suitable  screens 
to  arrest  the  coarser  products,  such  as  babies  and  other  foreign 
material  which  may  have  either  purposely  or  accidentally  been 
cast  into  the  sewage  stream,  the  current  should  be  conducted 
into  tanks  not  less  than  4^  to  6  feet  in  depth,  arranged  so  that 
the  stream  can  be  readily  directed  into  any  one  of  the  series  and 
that  precipitation  may  take  place  in  one  of  the  tanks  while 
another  is  filling.  The  materials  which  have  been  found  most 
efficient  for  inducing  precipitation  are  lime,  sulphate  of  iron, 
sulphate  of  alumina,  sulphuric  acid,  etc.  The  best  results  have 
been  obtained  by  mixture  of  more  than  one  chemical.  "  We 
think  it  not  inopportune  to  conclude  by  mentioning  the  method 
adopted  in  London.  The  sewage  is  conducted  by  the  main 
sewers  to  Barking  and  Crossness.  Large  works  have  been 
completed  at  Barking,  and  similar  works  are  in  process  of  con- 
struction at  Crossness,  for  separating  the  grosser  element.  Be- 
fore the  sewage  enters  the  works  it  is  strained  through  iron  cages 
which  retain  the  larger  bodies.  This,  amounting  in  one  week 
to  seventy  tons,  is  incinerated  in  a  Hoffman  Furnace.  The 
liquid,  having  in  suspension  the  finer  particles  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  dissolved  organic  matter,  is  directed  into  large  tanks 
for  subsidence,  which  is  facilitated  by  the  addition  of  lime,  thirty- 
seven  grains,  and  iron  sulphate,  fourteen  grains,  to  eacli  gallon 
of  sewage.  In  this  manner  twenty  thousand  tons  are  precipi- 
tated in  one  week.  The  sludge  is  forced  by  powerful  pumps  into 


3Q2  SEWAGE. 

tanks  on  board  ships  expressly  constructed  for  the  purpose.  The 
ships  having  a  capacity  of  one  thousand  tons,  convey  the  sludge 
to  sea,  where  it  is  discharged.  The  effluent,  containing  but  two 
grains  of  solids  per  gallon,  disembogues  into  the  Thames. 

The  abandonment  of  this  process  is  but  a  question  of  time,  for 
it  is  manifest  that  such  enormous  quantities  of  sludge  will  event- 
ually so  stop  up  the  estuary  of  the  Thames  as  to  seriously  in- 
terfere with  commerce  ;  and,  indeed,  may  prove  a.  grave  source 
of  pollution."  (Bevan  on  "Disposal  of  Sewage."  ]\Icdical  News, 
January  /,  1893.) 

No  matter  what  process  may  be  resorted  to,  the  effluent  and 
the  sludge  remains  more  or  less  infectious  in  character,  and  the 
question  of  getting  rid  of  this  is  now  a  matter  of  great  import- 
ance. The  sludge  may  be  passed  through  a  hydraulic  filter  press, 
depriving  it  of  most  of  the  water,  and  in  this  condition  it  maybe 
used  as  a  fertilizer  or  possibly  be  incinerated.  It  is  possible  that 
the  same  results  could  be  obtained  by  properly  constructed  cen- 
trifugal machines,  and  where  water  power  is  available,  this 
certainly  could  be  utilized  to  advantage.  The  sludge  which 
contains,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  over  90  percent,  of  water, 
might  possibly  be  utilized  as  a  fertilizer  if  mixed  with  suitable 
quantities  of  lime  or  sand,  although  the  value  of  this  sludge  as 
a  fertilizer  has  been  greatly  overestimated.  The  indications  are 
that  the  sludge  must  be  filtered  or  deprived  of  its  water,  and  then 
incinerated  and  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  that  the  effluent  must  be 
cared  for  properly  to  the  best  advantage  by  one  of  the  processes 
of  filtration. 

Filtration.  The  ordinary  methods  of  filtration,  either  down- 
ward or  upward  through  sand,  gravel,  charcoal,  magnetic  car- 
bide of  iron,  may  be  utilized  where  sufficient  land  cannot  be 
obtained  for  handling  the  sewage  by  either  the  process  of  down- 
ward or  upward  filtration  or  irrigation.  The  quantity  as  given 
by  Wilson  is  from  one-half  a  million  to  a  million  gallons  of  the 
effluent  per  half  acre  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  order  to  care  for 
this  quantity  it  will  be  necessary  that  precipitation,  as  already 
directed,  shall  have  been  carried  on,  or  that  a  most  thorough 
system  of  screening  shall  be  in  vogue.  The  materials  removed 
by  the  screen  had  probably  best  be  treated  by  incineration.  The 
magnetic  carbide  of  iron  is  presumed  to  have  a  purifying  inflii- 


FILTRATION — DISRUPTION.  393 

ence  upon  the  effluent,  and  in  that  manner  to  lessen  the  danger 
from  its  discharge  into  the  stream.  "  Of  all  filtration  processes, 
intermittent  downward  filtration  through  earth  most  completely 
purifies  sewage.  The  degree  of  efficiency  depends  upon  (i)  the 
porosity  of  the  soil,  (2)  the  fall  of  the  land.  There  should  be 
one  cubic  yard  for  each  eight  gallons  delivered  in  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  computed  that  one  acre  of  ground  will  take  up 
IOO.OOO  gallons  of  sewage  in  twenty-four  hours.  To  further 
facilitate  that  filtration  of  sewage,  it  should  be  delivered  in  pipes 
at  least  six  feet  under  the  surface.  The  filtration  surface  should 
be  divided  into  four  sections,  and  no  one  section  should  receive 
sewage  for  more  than  six  consecutive  hours.  The  surface  of 
the  plot  should  be  plowed  in  ridges  on  which  vegetables  are 
grown. 

"  In  England,  irrigation,  combined  with  either  filtration  or  pre- 
cipitation, has  been  pronounced  the  most  efficient  and  profitable 
process  for  the  utilization  of  sewage.  The  ground  selected  for 
the  farm  should  be  porous,  light,  loamy  soil.  The  farms  are 
arranged  in  ridges  along  the  tops  of  which  run  trenches  carry- 
ing the  sewage.  The  sewage  is  discharged  at  regular  intervals 
through  a  series  of  sluice-ways  into  furrows.  On  the  ridges  are 
grown  Italian  rye,  grass,  peas,  maize,  cabbages,  cereals,  etc. 
The  suspended  organic  matters  are  arrested  in  the  soil  and  oxid- 
ized or  resolved  into  harmless  compounds  by  the  organisms 
there  present.  The  dissolved  organic  substances  furnish  pabu- 
lum for  the  growing  vegetation. 

"  This  country,  with  its  cities  environed  by  extensive  agricul- 
tural districts,  affords  most  happy  and  natural  facilities  for  the 
employment  of  sewage. 

"A  modification  of  the  foregoing  process  might  be  adopted 
with  profit  to  a  municipal ity,  and  the  advantages  of  enriched 
lands  and  augmented  crops  to  the  agriculturist."  (Beran.} 

Disruption.  It  is  proposed  by  the  term  disruption  to  con- 
sider the  method  by  which  the  sewage  is  broken  up  into  the 
ultimate  chemical  elements  of  which  it  is  composed.  Of  the 
various  processes  which  have  been  proposed,  the  process  of  elec- 
trolysis devised  by  Mr.  Webster,  V.  C.  S.,  affords  some  promise, 
although  in  the  present  condition  of  electrical  generation,  the 
expense  incident  to  developing  sufficient  electricity  precludes  its 
25 


394  SEWAGE. 

general  use.  It  is  proposed  to  secure  the  breaking  up  of  the 
sewage  by  passing  it  through  receptacles  containing  large  flat 
iron  plates  to  which  the  poles  of  a  powerful  dynamo  are  at- 
tached. 

It  is  said  "  the  chlorids  in  the  water  are  split  up  at  the  positive 
pole,  and  the  chlorin  and  oxygen  unite  to  form  hydrochlorous 
acid.  This  partly  attacks  the  organic  matter  and  also  the  iron 
plates,  forming  ferrous  hypochlorite,  which,  in  its  turn,  is  acted 
on  by  the  bases  of  ammonia,  sodium,  potassium,  etc.,  set  free  at 
the  negative  pole,  and  converted  into  ferrous  hydrated  oxid, 
which  becomes  the  precipitating  agent."  (Wilson.] 


CHAPTER   XI. 

DISPOSAL  OF  THK   DKAI). 

Those  dead  from  infectious  and  contagious  diseases  should  be 
cared  for  as  already  pointed  out  ("  Handling  of  the  Dead  from 
Contagious  Diseases,"  page  <So). 

What  is  true  of  sewage  as  to  the  clangers  of  water  supply, 
applies  with  more  vividness  to  the  disposal  of  the  dead.  It  is 
almost  impossible  to  estimate  the  dangers  arising  from  badly 
selected  and  improperly  cared  for  burial  sites,  and  if  to  these  we 
add  improperly  constructed  graves,  we  have  a  complexus  of 
dangers  which  must  appal  us.  It  is  not  improbable  in  the 
writers'  minds  that  with  proper  disposition  of  the  dead,  com- 
bined with  improved  sanitary  regulations,  a  great  many  of 
the  diseases  now  rife  might  be  stamped  out.  The  thorough 
disinfection  of  all  other  dangerous  materials  has  been  so 
thoroughly  secured  by  modern  scientific  advances  that  with 
the  proper  disposition  of  infected  bodies  might  end  all  possi- 
bility of  further  spread  of  the  disease  from  that  individual  case. 
Popular  education  has  not  yet  arrived  at  that  point  of  advance, 
where  cremation  can  be  universally  accepted,  but  the  more  rapid 
the  diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge,  the  more  probable  the 
general  acceptation  of  incineration  ;  as  the  sanitary  and  scien- 
tific destruction  of  lower  animals  suffering  from  disease  likely 
to  spread  is  now  demanded,  not  only  by  sanitarians  but  the  peo- 
ple in  general,  why  not  mankind  as  well?  The  efficiency  of  cre- 
mation was  early  recognized  by  scientific  minds,  but  sentiment  has 
offered  such  obstruction  as  to  be  not  easily  overcome.  The  great 
tendency  toward  this  method  of  disposal  will  be  no  better  illustrated 
than  in  the  fact  that  at  a  recent  Congress  on  Hygiene,  it  was — 

"  Re  sol-red,  that  the  Government  should  be  urged  to  re- 
move all  legislative  obstacles  to  cremation. 

"  2.  That  the  Government  be  urged  to  adopt  cremation  of 
bodies  in  the  battle-field. 

"  3.  That  the  cremation  of  the  dead  is  a  rational  and  hygienic 

395 


396  DISPOSAL    OF    THE    DEAD. 

procedure,  which  is  especially  called  for  where  death  occurs 
from  an  infectious  disease." 

The  danger  which  has  been  advanced  of  rendering  crime 
more  easily  hidden  by  cremation  is  rather  exaggerated,  and  if  all 
cremations  were  preceded  by  an  autopsy,  it  is  not  likely  that  any 
criminals  would  escape  detection  through  this  method  of  dis- 
posal of  the  dead.  Were  the  vast  advantages  which  must 
accrue  as  a  result  of  cremation  satisfactorily  presented  to  the 
public  by  the  scientific  professions,  progress  could  most  certainly 
be  hastened.  The  present  low  cost  of  incineration  renders  its 
early  adoption  more  probable. 

Next  to  incineration,  burial  is  to  be  recommended.  Burial 
sites  should  be  selected  in  deference  to  the  surrounding  water 
courses,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  no  wells  or  other  water 
courses  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity  or  receive  the  drain  from 
the  burial  ground.  The  soil  itself  should  be  sandy,  preferably 
not  too  moist,  and  should  never  be  located  directly  over  an  im- 
permeable strata,  as  this  precludes  the  possibility  of  uninter- 
rupted downward  filtration.  Graves  should  be  deep  and  facili- 
ties should  be  secured  for  the  easy  and  effectual  disruption  of 
the  e  "nents  of  which  the  body  is  composed.  Hermetically 
sealer'  offins,  imperishable  in  character,  should  be  discouraged  ; 
this  is  not  intended  to  embrace  coffins  of  wood  sealed  for  the 
reception  or  handling  of  persons  dead  from  contagious  and  in- 
fectious diseases,  as  these  should  be  of  wood  and  so  constructed 
as  to  rapidly  disintegrate  after  being  placed  in  the  grave.  Em- 
balmment should  be  discouraged,  as  it  greatly  prolongs  the 
period  in  which  decomposition  is  taking  place.  In  Laurel  Hill 
Cemetery  the  writers  have  disinterred  a  body  after  two  years' 
burial  and  found  it  but  slightly  decomposed,  the  face  recogniz- 
able and  the  garments  in  a  fairly  good  condition.  The  coffin 
should  be  at  least  four  and  one-half  feet  under  ground,  the 
measurement  being  taken  from  the  top,  and  where  possible 
superimposed  burials  should  be  interdicted.  No  grave  should 
be  opened  inside  of  one  year  following  the  interment,  and  if 
death  was  the  result  of  a  contagious  disease,  the  period  should 
be  certainly  doubled,  and  preferably  disinterment  prohibited. 
Receiving  vaults,  and  all  temporary  or  provisional  repositories, 
should  be  discouraged. 


BURIAL   OF    LARGE    NUMBERS.  397 

Where  for  any  reason  large  numbers  are  to  be  buried  simul- 
taneously or  in  rapid  succession,  some  method  for  hastening 
dissolution  should  be  combined  with  the  ordinary  interment. 
For  this  purpose  a  large  number  of  agents  have  been  tried,  with 
more  or  less  satisfactory  results.  The  best  recorded  results,  if 
one  may  judge  from  the  large  number,  was  at  Met/,  in  1870. 
Parkes  records  the  method  as  follows:  "A  pit  of  about  seventeen 
feet  in  depth  was  filled  with  dead,  disposed  as  follows  :  a  row  of 
bodies  was  laid  side  by  side  ;  above  this  a  second  row  was 
placed,  with  the  heads  laid  against  the  feet  of  the  first  row  ;  the 
third  row  was  placed  across,  and  the  fourth  row  in  the  same  way, 
but  with  the  heads  to  the  feet  of  the  former  ;  the  fifth  row  was 
placed  the  same  as  No.  I,  and  so  on.  Between  each  layer  of 
bodies  about  an  inch  of  lime,  in  powder,  was  placed.  From  ninety 
to  one  hundred  bodies  were  thus  arranged  on  a  length  of  six  and 
one-half  feet,  and  reached  to  about  six  feet  from  the  surface  ; 
the  pit  was  then  filled  up  with  earth,  and  though  eight  thousand 
four  hundred  bodies  were  put  in  that  pit,  there  were  no  percept- 
ible emanations  at  any  time."  While  here  one  does  not  consider 
the  possibility  of  epidemic  death  from  contagious  disease  it  is 
reasonable  to  infer  that  the  lime  would  act  as  an  effici  it  dis- 
infectant. With  it  might  be  combined  carbolic  acid  t  some 
similar  disinfectant.  Chlorid  of  lime  would  present  all  the  advan- 
tages of  lime  and  the  chlorin  element  add  a  most  efficient  disin- 
fecting quality.  Strong  solutions  of  sulphate  of  zinc  offer  dis- 
tinct advantages,  as  would  sulphate  of  iron  to  a  lesser  degree. 
Sulphurous  acid  should  also  be  useful.  As  these  agents  delay 
decomposition,  and  thus,  in  a  manner,  interfere  with  a  most 
desirable  process,  that  of  decay,  they  should  be  used  only  when 
infectious  elements  be  present. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

TECHNIC. 

Microscope.  In  the  study  of  the  minute  cellular  elements, 
both  vegetable  and  animal,  with  which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to 
become  familiar,  a  good  microscope  and  outfit  are  essential. 
Beholding  the  many  most  admirable  instruments  which  are  now 
upon  the  market,  it  becomes  an  impossible  task  to  say  that  this 
or  that  make  is  the  best.  A  microscope  stand  for  good  all-round 
work  must  be  the  very  perfection  of  art  and  excellent  workman- 
ship. To  be  deserving  of  confidence  and  to  aspire  to  this  high 
distinction  it  must  combine  several  important  qualifications. 

The  stand  should  have  a  firm,  steady,  solid  base.  The  base 
should  be  upon  the  tripod  principle,  with  one  foot  directed 
directly  backward  and  the  two  others  directed  forward  and  out- 
ward ;  this  arrangement  secures  the  steadiness  of  the  stand, 
even  though  the  surface  of  the  work-table  should  not  be  per- 
fectly level.  The  body  of  the  stand  should  be  nicely  balanced 
upon  an  upright  rod  of  the  same  metal,  attached  to  the  base.  In 
many  microscope  stands  the  portion  of  the  body  above  the 
pinion  is  heavier  than  the  portion  below,  and  when  the  upright  is 
of  harder  metal  the  wear  upon  the  stand  is  very  great.  The 
harder  metal  cuts  the  softer,  and  this  inevitably  produces  un- 
steadiness in  a  comparatively  short  time.  When  the  body  is 
nicely  balanced  it  may  be  used  in  a  horizontal  position,  which 
quality  is  in  many  instances  quite  advantageous,  and  in  photo- 
graphy absolutely  indispensable. 

The  coarse  adjustment  should  be  a  rack  and  pinion  movement, 
and  the  fine  adjustment  should  be  not  only  what  is  claimed  for 
all  fine  adjustments,  but  so  conveniently  placed  as  not  to  compel 
the  observer  to  assume  a  strained  position  during  its  manipu- 
lation. All  movements  should  work  smoothly  and  the  focusing 
adjustments  should  not  give  any  rotary  movement  to  the  optical 
axis  of  the  instrument. 

Stage.  Provisions  should  be  made  for  the  moving  of  the 

398 


FIG.  135. 


STATE  NOR  KM 


upon  metal  and  held  in  place  by  an  i 


4<DO  TECH  NIC. 

specimen  under  examination  easily,  without  jolting  or  jarring,  and 
so  that  it  at  all  times  may  be  under  complete  control.  Stages  made 
by  a  combination  of  glass  and  metal  parts  afford  the  best  means 
for  securing  this  ease  and  facility  of  mojion,  and  while  the 
mechanical  stages  are  desirable,  the  extra  expense  is  not  in  pro- 
portion to  their  usefulness. 

A  sub-stage,  working  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  should  be  attached 
to  every  microscope,  and  an  arrangement  made  by  which  a  con- 
denser can  be  readily  adapted  to  the  collar  of  the  sub-stage.  The 
sub-stage  should  be  fitted  with  a  centering  arrangement  by  which 
the  condenser  may  be  accurately  centered  to  the  optical  axis  of 
the  instrument.  The  mirror  of  a  microscope  should  have  two 
surfaces,  one  flat,  the  other  concave. 

Stands  of  moderate  price  which  comply  with  the  above  require- 
ments are  made  by  Messrs.  R.  &  J.  Beck,  of  London  ;  Bausch 
&  Lomb  Optical  Company,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  E.  Lietz,  of 
Wetzlar,  Germany  (branch  office  in  New  York  City) ;  Carl  Zeiss, 
of  Jena,  and  other  reputable  makers. 

The  authors  have  been  using  for  several  years  the  "  Patholo- 
logical  "  stand  manufactured  by  R.  &  J.  Beck,  and  they  can  attest 
to  its  many  good  qualities.  The  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co., 
and  Lietz  also  make  stands  which  in  many  respects  resemble 
Beck's  Pathological,  and  are  in  all  probability  equally  as  good. 
Zeiss's  stands  are  in  high  repute,  but  in  an  ordinary  outfit  the 
stand  is  almost  entirely  destitute  of  those  qualities  which  make 
a  stand  desirable.  Accessories  are  made  for  Zeiss's  stands 
which,  when  fitted  to  it,  make  it  one  of  the  best  in  the  market ; 
but  even  then  so  doubtful  is  the  superiority  over  the  stands 
referred  to,  that  the  greater  expense  of  the  outfit  does  not  seem 
to  be  justified. 

Condensers. — Achromatic  condensers    occupy  a    high    and 

important  place  in  the 
pathologist's  and  micro-bio- 
logist's outfit,  and  a  good 
one  should  be  by  all  means 
obtained. 

The     Abbe    condenser, 
shown  in  Fi«r.  126.  is  a  model 

AN  Amis  CoNUKNSi'K,  WITH  IKIS  DIAPHRAGM.  ^ 

of  considerable  merit.     The 


MICROSCOPE    OBJECTIVES.  40 1 

diaphragm  is  of  the  iris  pattern  and  the  aperture  is  readily  regu- 
lated by  the  small  lever  seen  projecting  to  the  right  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  condenser.  When  in  use  the  condenser  should  be  accu- 
rately centered  to  the  optical  axis  of  the  objective,  and  whenever 
the  objectives  are  changed  it  will  be  necessary  to  readjust  the  con- 
denser ;  this  more  particularly  applies  to  the  high  powers.  To 
adjust  the  condenser,  close  the  diaphragm  to  the  smallest  pos- 
sible hole,  focus  the  objective,  and  move  the  condenser  by  the 
thumb-screws  of  the  centering  mechanism,  until  the  rays  of 
light  pass  through  the  condenser  and  objective  without  devia- 
tion. In  microscopes  not  having  the  centering  mechanism  on 
their  sub-stages,  the  advantages  conferred  by  a  properly  adapted 
condenser  may  be  decided  disadvantages,  as  the  images  of 
objects  viewed  by  the  high-power  objectives  are  much  distorted 
by  oblique  rays  of  light.  Hence  many  erroneous  deductions 
may  be  attributed  to  perverted  images,  the  consequence  of 
oblique  illumination  and  inability  to  make  conformable  the  rays 
of  light  with  the  optical  axis. 

Objectives.  We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  most 
important  part  of  the  microscopist's  outfit.  One  may  do  fairly 
good  work  with  an  inferior  stand,  with  or  without  a  condenser, 
but  good  objectives  must  compensate  for  other  deficiencies. 
Objectives  are  made  ranging  in  focal  distance  from  four  inches 
to  the  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  ;  and  the  greater  the  focal 
distance  the  lower  the  magnifying  power.  An  outfit  will  be 
fairly  well-equipped  if  it  contains  three  objectives  having  re- 
spectively a  focal  distance  of  three-fourths  inch,  one-fourth  or 
one-sixth  inch,  and  one-twelfth  inch.  The  low-power  objectives 
are  those  ranging  in  focal  length  from  one  inch  to  one-fifth  inch ; 
the  medium-power  range  in  focal  length  from  one-fifth  inch  to 
one-eighth  inch  ;  the  high-power  range  in  focal  length  from  the 
one-tenth  inch  to  the  one-twenty-fifth  inch.  The  essential  fea- 
ture of  a  low-power  objective  is  its  penetration  and  ability  to 
give  a  perfectly  flat  field.  The  objectives  of  any  of  the  above 
referred  to  firms  are  all  excellent  and  answer  this  requirement, 
so  we  feel  no  hesitancy  in  recommending  them.  Of  the  medium- 
powers  the  one-sixth  or  one-eighth  will  be  found  to  be  the  best 
adapted  for  general  work.  Many  of  the  medium-power  objec- 
tives have  what  is  known  as  a  correction  collar,  by  which  the 


4O2  TECHNIC. 

back  combination  is  made  to  approximate  or  recede  from  the 
front  combination  to  adapt  it  to  the  variations  in  thickness  of 
cover  glasses.  Correction  collars  are  unnecessary  incumbrances, 
and  we  believe  that  at  the  present  time  they  are  but  little  used  ; 
if  they  are,  those  using  them  seldom  bother  with  this  unneces- 
sary refinement.  The  essential  features  of  a  good  medium-power 
objective  are  flatness  of  field  and  definition.  Again,  we  have  no 
hesitancy  in  recommending  the  objectives  of  the  firms  previously 
mentioned,  and  particularly  those  of  Leitz  and  Bausch  &  Lomb. 
The  low-  and  medium-power  objectives  so  far  considered  are  all 
dry  lenses,  that  is  to  say,  no  liquid  of  any  kind  is  interposed  between 
the  lower  combination  of  the  objective  and  the  object  under  ex- 
amination. Objectives  having  a  focal  length  of  from  one-fifth 
up  magnify  sufficiently  high  to  enable  one  to  distinctly  see  the 
bacillus  tuberculosis,  and  will  therefore  be  of  sufficiently  high  a 
power  to  answer  the  requirements  of  one  who  only  desires  to 
examine  sputum,  urine,  etc.,  for  diagnostic  purposes.  The  best 
high-power  objectives  are  what  are  known  as  homogeneous  oil 
immersions.  In  these  the  space  between  the  object  under  exami- 
nation and  the  front  lens  of  the  objective  is  occupied  by  a  specially 
prepared  oil  having  a  refractive  index  equal  to  crown  glass.  The 
most  useful  objective  of  this  series  is  the  one-twelfth ;  angle  N.  A. 
1.25.  The  high-power  dry  and  -water  immersion  objectives  do  not 
give  such  satisfactory  results  as  the  homogeneous  oil  immersion 
lenses,  and  though  often  answering  a  purpose,  are  not  to  be  en- 
tirely depended  upon.  Two  essentials  of  a  high-power  objective 
in  biologic  and  sanitary  work  are  penetration  and  definition,  and 
the  objectives  of  Leitz,  Bausch  &  Lomb,  and  Beck  have  given 
excellent  satisfaction  in  the  hands  of  the  authors.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  with  oil  immersion  lenses,  and,  after  using,  all  oil 
should  be  carefully  wiped  off,  otherwise  the  cement  between  the 
combinations  may  soften. 

Illumination.  Daylight  affords  the  best  illumination,  but  when 
this  fails,  resort  must  be  had  to  artificial  illumination.  For  arti- 
ficial illumination  we  use  a  lamp  made  by  the  Messrs  Beck, 
which  has  certain  decided  advantages  over  ordinary  lamps.  The 
chimney  is  of  blackened  thin  sheet  iron  with  oblong  openings 
in  front  and  back,  into  which  fit  glass  slides  I  x  3  inches.  The 
ordinary  microscopic  glass  slip  may  be  used,  or  into  the  back 


SLIDES    AND    COVER-GLASSES.  403 

may  be  placed  an  enameled  glass  which  acts  as  a  reflector,  and 
into  the  front  a  piece  of  tinted  glass.  The  lamp  is  attached  by 
a  sliding  clamp  to  an  upright  brass  rod,  so  that  it  may  be  set  at 
any  height.  It  is  also  provided  with  a  movable  concavo-convex 
lens,  that  the  light  may  be  condensed  or  dissipated  to  suit  con- 
venience. 

For  ordinary  work,  however,  the  common  paraffine  lamp  with 
a  flat  wick  is  all  that  will  be  demanded. 

Cover  glasses  are  thin  plates  of  white  glass  cut,  usually,  cither 
in  circles  or  squares.  They  are  numbered  as  oo,  o,  1,2,  and  3, 
according  to  their  thickness,  number  oo  being  the  thinnest  and 
number  3  the  thickest.  Number  I  can  be  used  with  most  oil  im- 
mersion objectives  and  is  the  best  for  general  work.  Cover-glasses 
may  be  cleaned  with  alcohol,  slightly  acidulated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  fine  toilet  paper.  Hold  the  cover  by  the  thumb 
and  index  finger,  between  folds  of  toilet  paper  moistened  with 
the  acidulated  alcohol,  and,  by  a  gentle  motion,  rotate  the  cover 
with  the  left  hand,  care  being  taken  not  to  allow  the  thumb  or 
finger  to  come  in  contact  with  the  flat  surfaces.  In  the  same 
manner,  with  a  clean,  dry  piece  of  toilet  paper,  wipe  the  surfaces 
perfectly  clean  and  dry. 

Slides  are  small  slips  cut  from  glass  plates  one-sixth  to  one- 
eighth  inch  in  thickness.  The  length  of  the  slides  is  commonly 
three  inches  and  the  width  one  inch  ;  microscope  stages  are 
constructed  to  accommodate  slides  of  such  dimensions.  Many 
qualities  of  slides  are  in  the  market,  from  the  common  green 
glass  slide  to  the  highly  polished  plate  glass  slide  with  beveled 
edges.  For  every-day  work  a  common  white  glass  slide,  free 
from  blubbers  or  scales,  will  answer  all  purposes. 

The  hollow  ground  glass  slide  is  made  for  special  work,  c.  g., 
hanging  drops  and  drop  cultures.  This  form  of  slide  is  of  great 
value  to  bacteriologists,  as  it  enables  them  to  study  microorgan- 
isms during  life,  and  in  certain  experimental  work,  such  as 
testing  the  germicidal  value  of  chemical  substances,  is  indispens- 
able. 

The  selection  of  jars  for  preserving  specimens  and  the  trans- 
portation of  water,  etc.,  will  often  cause  considerable  bother  and 
annoyance,  and  when  specimens  are  placed  in  poor  containers 
they  are  frequently  ruined.  The  jar  shown  in  Fig.  127  is  known 


404  TECHNIC. 

as  a  jelly  jar,  and  is  an  excellent  container  for  small  specimens. 

These  jars  are  made  in  sizes  of  8  and  12  ounces.  The  lid  has 
on  its  upper  surface  a  solid  wedge-shaped 
piece  of  glass  set  on  edge  with  the 
pointed  extremity  at  the  margin  of  the 
lid  and  the  base  extending  slightly  be- 
yond the  center.  Upon  the  upper  edge 
of  the  wedge  directly  over  the  center  is 
a  notch.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  jar 
about  an  inch  below  the  top  are  attached 

JELLY  JAR  USBD  FOR  PATHOLOG-    PIateS   °f   glaSS   with    shallow    depressions, 

jMENsAANDAsNHYp°p"NGAwfTECR:  into  which  fit  the  extremities  of  a  steel 
wire  spring.  With  the  lid  in  place  and 

the  spring  drawn  over  the  wedge  and  placed  in  the  notch  of  the 
wedge  it  is  firmly  secured.  Interposed  between  the  lid  and  the 
jar  is  a  rubber  ring.  We  have  used  this  jar  for  several  years 
and  are  greatly  pleased  with  it. 

Fig.  128  shows  section  and  staining  dishes  in  three  sizes.  The 
tops  of  the  dishes  and  the  lids  where  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  jars  are  ground,  and  by  smearing  with  vaselin  or  oil  they 
are  made  air  tight.  These  dishes  will  be  found  very  useful,  and 
may  be  used  for  a  number  of  purposes. 

Bacteriologic  Technic.  With  the  promulgation  of  Pasteur's 
theory  of  fermentation  the  inquiring  minds  of  scientists  were 
directed  to  the  development  of  methods  by  which  we  might 
acquire  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  these  minute  organisms. 
It  soon  became  patent  to  the  early  investigators  in  bacteriology 
that  methods  for  the  artificial  cultivation  of  microorganisms 
were  urgently  demanded,  and  that  but  little  hope  for  advance- 
ment might  be  expected  until  such  methods  were  devised. 

The  first  artificial  culture  media  were  various  organic  liquids, 
and  it  was  not  until  1881  that  Koch  introduced  the  solid  media 
in  the  form  of  nutrient  gelatin. 

Since  i<S8i  various  other  solid  media  have  come  into  use,  of 
which  that  known  as  agar-agar,  or  combinations  of  agar-agar 
and  gelatin,  are  probably  the  most  commonly  used,  in  this 
country  at  least. 

The  formulae  for  several  of  the  more  valuable  culture  media 
are  appended. 


FLUID    CULTUKK    MKDIA. 


405 


To  prepare  tubes,  flasks,  etc.,  for  the  reception  of  nutrient 
fluids : — 

Test-tubes,  flasks,  etc.,  arc  washed,  dried,  and  plumed  with 
absorbent  cotton.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  dry-air  sterili/er  or 
oven  at  a  very  high  temperature  (240°  K),  where  they  remain 
until  the  margin  of  the  cotton  becomes  a  light  brown.  After 
cooling  they  are  ready  to  be  charged  with  the  culture  media. 

FIG.  128. 


SPECIMEN  AND  STAIN  JARS  WITH  ACCURATELY  FITTING  GKOUNIJ  GLASS  TOPS. 

Fluid  Culture  Media. 

Cohn's  Fluid  is  prepared  as  follows  : — 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime,          o.  I  part. 

Phosphate  of  potassium, 20  " 

Sulphate  of  magnesia, 10  " 

Tartrate  of  ammonia, 20  " 

Distilled  water, 100  " 

Sterilize  thirty  minutes  for  three  successive  days  in  steam 
sterilizer.  Do  not  inoculate  until  three  days  have  elapsed,  after 
which  time  they  may  be  used  when  required,  if  sterile. 

Infusions  of  horse  and  cattle  manure,  hay,  etc.,  are  used  as 
culture  media,  and  the  same  precautions  regarding  sterilization 
as  previously  noted  should  be  observed. 

Meat  Infusion  :  Place  one  pound  of  finely-chopped  beef  or 
mutton,  as  free  as  possible  from  fat,  in  one  liter  of  distilled  water, 
and  stand  the  container  in  an  ice-chest  for  twentv-four  hours. 


406  TECHNIC. 

Strain  through  a  fine  piece  of  muslin  or  soft  flannel,  and  add 
sufficient  distilled  water  to  make  one  liter.  Pour  into  a  flask, 
boil,  and  filter.  Add  of  peptone  (meat  or  albumin)  10  grams  ; 
of  sodium  chlorid  5  grams.  Alkalinize  with  sodium  carbonate, 
filter,  and  store  in  stock-flasks.  Another  formula  is  : — 

Armour's  meat  extract, 5  grams. 

Peptone, 10      " 

Distilled  water 1000  c.c. 

Glycerin  when  desired 60  grams. 

Alkalinize  with  sodium  carbonate,  boil,  filter,  and  store  in 
stock-flasks  or  charge-tubes.  1st  day,  A.M.,  sterilize  in  steam 
sterilizer  for  30  minutes  ;  ist  day,  P.M.,  sterilize  in  steam  steril- 
izer for  20  minutes ;  2d  day,  sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  for  20 
minutes  ;  3d  day,  sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  for  20  minutes. 

Incubate  and  keep  under  observation  for  one  week  before 
using. 

Urine  and  milk  are  also  used  as  culture  media,  and  the  latter 
forms  an  excellent  pabulum  for  torulae,  bacilli,  and  micrococci. 
It  is  at  all  times  quite  difficult  to  render  milk  sterile,  requiring 
thirty  minutes  each  day  for  six  successive  days. 

Solid  Culture  Media. 

Bread  Paste :  Thoroughly  dry  a  stale  loaf  in  the  oven  ;  re- 
move the  crust  and  reduce  the  remainder  to  a  fine  powder. 
Then  take  of  these  crumbs  10  grams,  distilled  water  2.5  c.c. 
Place  in  a  small  Bohemian  flask  and  treat  as  follows:  1st  day, 
sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  (2I2°F.)  for  30  minutes;  2d  day, 
sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  (212°  F.)  for  20  minutes;  3d  day, 
sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  (212°  F.)  for  20  minutes. 

Keep  under  observation  for  at  least  three  days,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  which  time,  if  they  have  remained  sterile,  they  are  ready 
for  inoculation. 

Potatoes  :  Small  or  medium-sized  potatoes  with  regular  out- 
line and  free  from  "  eyes  "  should  be  used.  Clean  the  potato, 
remove  the  rind,  and  cut  in  oblong  pieces  to  fit  test  tubes. 

1st  day,  sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  for  45  minutes;  2(1  day, 
sterilize  in  steam  sterilizer  for  30  minutes  ;  3d  day,  sterilize  in 
steam  sterilizer  for  30  minutes. 

If  no  growth  has  developed  by  the  third  day  after  the  comple- 
tion of  sterilization,  they  may  be  considered  sterile. 


SOLID    CULTURE    MKDIA.  407 

Gelatin  Nutrient  Media:  Add  150  grams  of  gelatin  (French 
"  Gold  Seal  ")  to  one  liter  of  the  meat  infusion  prepared  from 
raw  beef  or  mutton. 

It  may  also  be  prepared  according  to  the  following  formula:— • 

(iclatin, 150  grams. 

Armour's  meat  extract, 5  grams. 

Peptones  (meat  or  albumin), 10  grams. 

Water, Iooo  c  c 

Raise  this  slowly  to  a  boil,  render  alkaline  with  sodium  car- 
bonate, filter,  pour  into  stock  flasks,  and  sterili/e  same  as  above. 

When  desired,  glucose,  2  grams,  may  be  added  to  the  above. 

Gelatin  Agar-Agar  :  This  is  prepared  by  adding  fifty  grams  of 
gelatin  and  7.5  grams  of  agar-agar  to  the  bouillon  prepared  from 
beef  and  mutton  or  by  the  following  formula: — 

Gelatin,       ...        50    grams. 

Agar-agar,      7.5      " 

Armour's  meat  extract, 5         " 

Peptone  (meat  or  albumin), .       10        " 

Water, icoo    c.  c. 

Dissolve  the  agar  in  400  c.  c.  of  the  water,  then  add  the  other 
ingredients.  Render  alkaline,  filter,  store  in  stock  flasks  or 
charge  tubes,  and  sterilize  the  same  as  meat  infusion. 

Agar-Agar.  In  the  bouillon  prepared  from  raw  beef  or  mutton 
dissolve  1 5  grams  of  agar-agar,  or, 

Agar-agar, 15    grams. 

Peptone  (meat  or  albumin), 10       " 

Armour's  meat  extract,     . 5       " 

Water,  distilled, • 1000  c.  c. 

The  agar-agar  is  dissolved  in  900  c.  c.  of  water.  The  solu- 
tion is  facilitated  by  placing  it  in  a  flask  for  several  hours  in  a 
steam  sterilizer.  In  the  remaining  looc.  c.  dissolve  the  peptone 
and  meat  extract,  which  is  then  added  to  the  agar-agar  solution. 
The  media  is  rendered  alkaline  with  sodium  carbonate,  filtered 
into  the  stock  flasks  and  sterilized.  Two  or  three  eggs  may  be 
broken  in  the  media  if  the  filtration  does  not  render  it  clear,  and 
it  is  again  placed  in  the  sterilizer  for  thirty  minutes  ;  as  the  al- 
bumen of  the  egg  coagulates,  it  entangles  much  dirt  and  helps 
to  clarify  the  media.  After  the  final  filtration  sterilize- 

ist  day  for  40  minutes;  2d  day  for  30  minutes  ;  3d  day  for 
30  minutes. 


408  TECH  NIC. 

When  tubes  are  required  they  are  charged  and  sterilized  in  the 
same  manner.  If  a  slanting  surface  is  desired,  after  the  final 
sterilization  they  are  laid  in  rows  with  the  plugged  ends  slightly 
elevated,  and  the  media  can  be  set  at  any  angle  wished.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  contact  between  the  media  and  cot- 
ton plugs. 

They  should  be  carefully  watched  for  one  week  after  which 
they  may  be  used  if  no  growths  develop. 

Plating.  Plating  is  a  process  by  which  solid  nutrient  media 
are  set  in  a  thin  layer,  that  the  organisms  may  develop  into 
colonies  and  be  removed  to  tubes,  etc.  The  object  is  to  isolate 
the  different  bacteria  when  many  varieties  are  present  in  the  sub- 
stance to  be  examined. 

Tube  plating  consists  in  charging  a  test-tube  with  a  small 
amount  of  nutrient  material,  and  while  still  in  a  fluid  state,  but 
at  a  temperature  of  not  more  than  105°  F.,  inoculating  it  with  a 
small  quantity  of  the  infected  substances.  After  inoculating  the 
tube  plate,  it  is  rotated  rapidly  on  ice  ;  the  media  sets  in  a  thin 
uniform  layer  around  the  tube.  It  is  then  placed  in  an  incubator 
and  should  be  frequently  and  carefully  examined.  As  the  colo- 
nies appear  they  are  removed  to  tubes.  In  this  climate,  in  the 
summer  months,  gelatin  agar-agar  or  agar-agar  is  the  most  suit- 
able media,  but  in  winter  gelatin  is  best  if  incubation  is  not 
necessary. 

Another  excellent  and  easy  method  is  the  one  recommended 
by  Drs.  Leffmann  and  Beam.  Bottles  ("  Blakes  " 
or  "  Baltimore  ovals  ")  are  plugged  with  cotton, 
sterilized  in  the  hot-air  sterilizer,  and  charged 
with  liquefied  culture  media  (agar  or  gelatin), 
and  when  at  a  proper  temperature  inoculated. 
They  are  then  placed  on  their  sides  and  the 
media  allowed  to  set  in  a  thin  layer  on  one  or 
more  of  the  sides  and  the  colonies  to  develop. 

Koch's  Plating  Method.     Select  three   tubes 
charged  with   nutrient   gelatin   or  gelatin  agar- 
agar,  and  number  them  I,  2,  and  3.    Liquefy  the 
media  and  place  the  tubes  in  a  water  bath  having 
a  temperature  of  I  10  F.  until  the  media  falls  to  a  corresponding 
decree. 


H-:TKI  PLATES. 


409 


A  very  small  quantity  of  the  material  under  investigation  is 
by  means  of  an  ose  introduced  into  tube  No.  I.  The  media 
in  tube  No.  I  is  vigorously  agitated,  so  as  to  secure  an  equal 
distribution  of  the  organisms,  care  being  taken  not  to  permit  the 
media  to  come  in  contact  with  the  cotton  plug.  Tube  No.  2  is 
inoculated  vvitli  a  drop  of  media  from  tube  No.  I  and  treated  in 
the  same  manner.  Tube  No.  3  is  inoculated  with  one  or  more 
drops,  as  experience  dictates,  from  tube  No.  2,  and  treated  as  tubes 
Nos.  i  and  2. 

The  liquefied  media  is  poured  over  three  sterili/.ed  glass 
plates  which  are  eight  to  ten  centimeters  wide  by  ten  to  twelve 
centimeters  long  ;  each  plate  is  numbered  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  numbers  of  the  tubes  from  which  the  media  is  taken.  The 
plates  are  immediately  placed  in  an  apparatus  which  has  been 


FIG    130. 


FIG.   131. 


KOCH'S  PLATING  APPARATUS  AS  AKRANGRD  FOR 
"SETTING"  AGAK  ou  GELATIN  PLATES. 


KOCH'S  PLATING  APPARATUS, 
MOIST  CHAMIIKK. 


thoroughly  sterilized  (Figs.  130,  131).  This  apparatus  secures  a 
perfectly  level  surface  and  the  media  sets  in  a  thin,  uniform  layer. 
If  it  is  desired  to  facilitate  the  development  of  the  colonies,  the 
lanre  elass  dish  may  be  placed  in  the  incubator. 

o        I">  ^ 

A  modification  of  Koch's  method  is  that  of  Petri. 
This  investigator  employs  a  dish  such  as 

.  .  FIG.  i  -,2. 

is  shown  in  Fig.  132.  The  dish  is  ster- 
ilized in  a  hot-air  or  steam  sterilizer,  and 
the  inoculated,  liquefied  media  is  poured 
into  the  lower  dish  and  the  cover  replaced.  Pj  m  DlSH 

The   media   is    permitted  to    set,   when    it 

may  be  placed  in  the  incubator  if  desired.      Petri's  method  does 
not  require  the  use  of  leveling  apparatus. 
26 


4io 


TECH  NIC. 


Fractional  Plating  in  Examination  of  Water.  For  fractional 
plating  three  plates  will  be  required  :  Plate  No.  I  is  inoculated 
with  one-half  c.c.  of  the  water;  plate  No.  2  inoculated  with  one- 
half  c.c.  of  the  fluid  from  No.  I,  and  plate  No.  3  inoculated  with 
one-half  c.c.  of  the  fluid  from  No.  2.  If  we  have  determined 
by  our  superficial  examination  that  the  water  contains  but  few 
organisms,  i  c.c.  is  used  for  inoculating  the  plates;  whereas,  if 
the  sample  be  teeming  with  bacteria,  one-half  c.c.  is  diluted  with 
a  definite  quantity  of  sterile  water,  and  allowance  made  in  numeri- 
cal calculations  if  such  are  to  be  made. 

Agar-agar  sets  well ;  it  may  be  incubated  ;  it  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent, and  liquefaction  is  exceptional ;  therefore,  we  consider  it 
most  desirable  for  plating.     When  the  colonies  develop  to  the 
size   of  a  pin's  head,   removals    are  made   to  tubes   by  touch- 
ing  the   colonies   with    a    cool    platinum   wire   which    has   just 
been  sterilized  in  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner  or  spirit  lamp, 
and  then  stroking  the  surface  of  the  media  contained  in  the  tube. 
Counting  Colonies.    The  counting  of  colonies  is  easily  accom- 
plished by  ruling  a  slate  or  piece  of  paper  into  a  number  of  small 
squares,  then   placing  the  plate  over  the 
ruled  surface  and  counting  the  number  of 
colonies    in  each  square.     By  adding  the 
number  thus  obtained  the  whole  number 
of  colonies  on  the  plate  is  determined. 

Cultivation  of  Anaerobes.  A  number 
of  microorganisms,  known  as  anaerobes, 
will  not  grow  in  the  presence  of  free 
oxygen,  and  to  cultivate  them  we  have 
recourse  to  a  special  method.  To  this 
end  hydrogen  tubes  are  most  in  vogue. 
The  principle  involved  in  this  method  is 
the  displacement  of  the  air  in  tubes  by 
hydrogen.  The  device  recommended  by 
Sternberg  is  of  exceeding  simplicity,  and 
Cut-  as  t])c  rcsuits  obtained  are  satisfactory,  it 
may  be  accounted  as  one  of  the  best. 
This  method  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  133. 
Through  long  tube  a,  which  is  connected 
by  rubber  tubing  with  a  hydrogen  generator,  passes  the  hydro- 


r  \ 


STI:HM 


a   (',}; 
whi 


i  IIKI-:  Tr 
,s  tnliiiit;  ;  a' 
re  the  tubes  :i 
cut  ;  c,  -.'.ft  rn 
-.Moil  piny  ;  ,-, 
viti^  uroWi-tli. 


onstrictions 

sealed;    />, 

er  stopper  ; 

ulture  media 


HISTOLOGIC    STAINS.  41  I 

gen  to  displace  the  air  in  the  test-tube.  As  the  hydrogen  enters, 
the  air  is  forced  through  short  tube  a.  When  the  air  is  com- 
pletely displaced,  the  hydrogen,  if  a  lighted  match  be  applied  to 
'the  end  of  the  short  tube,  will  burn  with  a  small  flame  ;  but  if 
only  a  small  quantity  of  air  remains  when  the  match  is  applied, 
an  explosion,  which  often  results  in  the  destruction  of  the  test- 
tube,  will  occur.  When  it  has  been  determined  that  hydrogen 
only  is  passing  through  the  escape  tube,  both  tubes  are  >ealed 
at  the  constrictions  a' a'  by  heating  in  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen 
burner.  If  the  tube  contains  well  set  agar-agar  and  but  very 
little  water  of  condensation,  the  displacement  of  air  will  be 
hastened  by  inverting  the  test-tube.  As  space  will  not  permit 
of  a  detailed  description  of  the  many  methods  that  are  now 
employed,  we  refer  the  reader  to  works  on  Bacteriologic 
Technic. 

Staining. 

Histologic  Stains.  A  few  stains  will  be  necessary,  and  only  the 
simplest  and  most  efficient  will  be  enumerated. 

Hematoxylin, 

Alum, aa       2  parts. 

Alcohol, 

Distilled  water, 

Glycerin, Aa  100  parts. 

This  solution  does  not  attain  full  strength  until  about  the 
eighth  day.  Sections  are  stained  in  equal  parts  of  the  dye  and 
water  for  about  one  minute,  some  sections  requiring  a  little 
more,  and  others  a  little  less  time  ;  remove,  wash  in  water,  60 
per  cent,  alcohol,  and  thoroughly  dehydrate  in  absolute  alcohol, 
clear  in  oil  of  cloves,  creosote,  or  cedar  oil,  and  mount  in  balsam 

Cannin, 

Saturated  solution  of  lithium  carbonate, loo     parts. 

Carmin, 2.5 

This  solution  is  almost  immediately  read}-  for  use.  Equal 
parts  of  the  stain  and  water  are  employed.  The  sections  re- 
main in  the  solution  from  three  to  five  minutes  ;  they  are  then 
bleached  in  acid  alcohol  ;  hydrochloric  acid  one  part ;  water 
30  parts  ;  alcohol  70  parts  ;  rinsed  in  60  per  cent,  alcohol,  and 
dehydrated  in  absolute  alcohol,  cleared  in  oil  of  cloves,  and 
mounted  in  balsam. 


412  TECHNIC. 

Ranvicrs   Picrocannin   Stain.      One    gram    of  the   best   car- 
min  is   rubbed   up  with  ten  c.c.  of  distilled  water,  and  three  c.c. 
liquor  ammonia,  and  then  added  to  200  c.c.  of  a  cold  saturated 
solution  of  picric  acid.     Evaporate  over  a  water  bath  at  a  low' 
temperature,  to  IOO  c.c. 

For  use,  dilute  one  part  of  the  stain  with  two  parts  of  dis- 
tilled water.  The  sections  are  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  staining  solution  for  one  hour,  then  washed  for  one-half 
hour  in  water  acidulated  with  a  few  drops  of  a  saturated  aqueous 
solution  of  picric  acid.  Dehydrate  the  specimen  in  absolute 
alcohol,  clear  and  mount. 
To  Stain  for  Microorganisms. 

Wcigerfs  method  consists  in  placing  the  sections  for  from  six 
to  eighteen  hours  in  a  one  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  any  of  the 
basic  anilin  dyes.  By  warming  the  stain  in  the  incubator  the 
process  is  hastened.  If  a  stronger  solution  be  employed,  the 
staining  will  be  more  rapid,  but  the  results  will  not  be  so  satis- 
factory. The  sections  are  first  washed  in  a  one-half  saturated 
solution  of  potassium  carbonate,  next  in  water,  then  in  60  per 
cent,  alcohol,  and  finally  dehydrated  in  absolute  alcohol,  cleared 
and  mounted.  After  dehydration  the  tissue  may  be  stained  in 
the  lithium-carmin  solution,  to  which  has  been  added  ten  or 
fifteen  drops  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid,  fol- 
lowed by  rinsing  in  water  and  then  in  60  per  cent,  alcohol,  each 
of  which  contain  a  few  drops  of  the  picric  acid  solution.  The 
sections  arc  dehydrated  in  alcohol,  cleared  and  mounted. 

Grant  s  Method.  Stain  sections  from  three  to  ten  minutes  in 
anilin  methyl  violet,  gentian  violet,  or  fuchsin,  prepared  as 
follows  : — 

Saturated  solution  of  anilin  oil  in  distilled  water  (filtered),  .  IOO  parts 
Gentian   violet,  methyl  violet,  or  fuchsin,  saturated   alcoholic 

solution, II  parts 

Alcohol, 10  parts. 

Transfer  section  to  Gram's  iodin-iodo-potassic  solution — 

lodin, I  part 

lodid  of  potassium, 2  paits 

Water, 300  parts, 

until  they  become  a  dark  brown,  rinse  in  60  per  cent,  alcohol, 
and  then  decolori/.e  in  absolute  alcohol,  clear  in  clove  oil,  and 


BACTERIOLOGIC    STAINS.  413 

mount.  The  process  of  decolorization  is  hastened,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  section  enhanced,  by  removing  from  absolute 
alcohol  to  clove  oil,  and,  after  a  short  interval  of  time  returnin" 

r> 

to  alcohol,  then  finally  clearing  in  clove  or  cedar  oil,  and 
mounting. 

W'cigcrfs  Modification  of  Grant  s  Method.  Stain  the  sections 
in  lithium  carmin,  decolorize  and  dehydrate  as  already  directed. 
Transfer  the  section  to  a  glass  slip,  and  cover  with  a  few  drops 
of  anilin-methyl-violet,  freshly  prepared.  After  five  to  ten 
minutes  pour  off  the  excess  of  stain  and  cover  specimen  with 
several  drops  of  Gram's  iodo-potassic-iodid  solution  for  one 
minute;  this  is  now  poured  off,  and  the  specimen  dried  by 
lightly  pressing  upon  it  a  clean  folded  piece  of  filter  paper.  The 
specimen  is  decolorized  by  permitting  anilin  oil  to  How  gently 
over  it;  as  the  anilin  becomes  stained  it  must  be  replaced  afresh, 
and  the  process  continued  until  the  color  ceases  to  come  away. 
The  section  is  cleared  in  xylol.  On  first  adding  the  xylol,  it 
will  become  turbid  ;  therefore  we  must  continue  to  add  the  xylol 
until  it  remains  perfectly  clear.  Allow  a  few  minutes  for  the 
xylol  to  evaporate,  and  then  mount  in  xylol  balsam. 

Lofflcrs  Method.     The  formula  for  Loffler's  stain  is  : — 

Methylene  blue  (saturated  alcoholic  solution), 30  parts 

Caustic  potash  solution  (l  in  10,000), loo  parts. 

Specimens  are  stained  in  this  solution,  the  time  varying  with 
the  specimen  from  one-half  hour  to  twelve  hours.  The  speci- 
men should,  after  staining,  be  washed  in  distilled  water,  immersed 
in  absolute  alcohol,  cleared  up  with  cedar  oil  or  xylol,  and 
mounted  in  xylol  balsam. 

To    Stain  the    Bacillus  of  Tuberculosis. 

Zichl-Xcchais  Method,  The  staining  solution  is  made  as 
follows  : — 

Fuchsin I   Part 

Alcohol I0  Par>s 

Dissolve  and  add  aqueous  sol.  of  carbolic  acid  (5  per    cent.)    100  juris. 

Stain  sections  in  the  above  solution  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  staining  process  can  be  hastened  by  heating  the 
solution  until  steam  rises,  it  being  necessary  to  immerse  the  sec- 
tions in  the  heated  solution  for  onlv  one-half  hour.  Cover-glass 


414  TECHNIC. 

preparations  can  be  stained  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  After 
staining,  wash  away  the  superfluous  stain  in  distilled  water, 
transfer  to  90  per  cent,  alcohol  for  several  seconds,  then  to  a  25  per 
cent,  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  for  a  few  seconds.  Wash  the 
sections  in  alcohol,  and  if  they  are  sufficiently  decolorized  trans- 
fer to  a  solution  consisting  of  lithium  carbonate  I  part,  water  9 
parts,  and  thoroughly  wash.  After-stain  with  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  methylene  blue,  clear  in  cedar  or  clove  oil  or  xylol,  and 
mount  in  xylol  balsam. 

Koch-Ehrlich  Method. 

Stain  : — 

Saturated  alcoholic  sol.  of  methyl  violet,  gentian  violet  or  fuchsin,     It  parts 

Anilin   water, loo     " 

Alcohol, 10     " 

Specimens  are  left  in  this  solution  for  twelve  hours,  when  they 
are  treated  with — 

(1)  Nitric  acid  solution  (HNO3,  I  part;  H2O  2  parts)  for  a  few 

seconds. 

(2)  Wash  in  sixty  per  cent,  alcohol  for  a  few  minutes. 

(3)  After-stain  with  two  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  vesuvin 

or  methylene  blue.     (Optional) 

(4)  Wash  in  sixty  per  cent,  alcohol. 

(5)  Dehydrate  in  absolute  alcohol. 

(6)  Clear  in  oil  of  cloves  or  cedar,  creosote  or  xylol,  and — 

(7)  Mount  in  Canada  balsam. 

Inoculation  Experiments.  In  the  course  of  our  experi- 
mentation we  are  not  infrequently  constrained  to  have  recourse 
to  inoculation  experiments,  by  which  is  understood  the  inocu- 
lation of  animals  with  a  given  material  that  we  may  test  the 
presence  of,  or  isolate,  certain  specific  organisms  or  poisons. 

If  we  adduce  examples  of  instances  in  which  it  is  necessary 
to  resort  to  inoculation  experiments  it  will,  perhaps,  convey  a 
clearer  impression  and  better  enable  the  uninitiated  to  appreciate 
the  importance  of  such  experiments. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  discharge  from  an  open  ulcer  or  the 
nostrils  of  a  case  in  which  the  diagnosis  is  doubtful,  but  from 
certain  symptoms  and  signs  we  suspect  glanders,  is  sent  to  the 
laboratory. 


INOCULATION    EXPERIMENTS.  415 

If  it  be  glanders  we  not  only  wish  to  recogni/.e  bacilli  answer- 
ing to  certain  prescribed  dimensions  and  staining  reactions,  which 
are  in  this  instance  of  doubtful  utility,  but  to  grow  the  organism 
in  pure  cultures  and  to  produce  the  disease  in  a  susceptible  ani- 
mal. We  first  secure  an  animal  known  to  be  susceptible  to  the 
disease — in  glanders  a  guinea-pig — and  by  means  of  a  hypoder- 
matic syringe  it  is  inoculated  with  the  infective  material.  What 
is  known  as  the  method  of  Strauss  is  the  best  for  determining 
the  presence  of  and  isolating  the  bacillus  mallei,  and  the  method 
may  be  conducted  as  follows  : — 

The  suspected  material  is  injected  into  the  abdominal  cavity 
of  a  male  guinea-pig.  If  the  bacillus  mallei  is  present  it  quickly 
inaugurates  its  peculiar  infective  processes.  The  tunica  vaginalis 
testis  is  early  involved  and  undergoes  a  purulent  inflammation. 
The  exudate  which  covers  the  serous  membrane  is  quite  adher- 
ent and  contains  numbers  of  the  specific  bacilli.  The  infective 
process  extends  from  the  tunica  vaginalis  to  the  testicle  itself, 
which  exhibits,  in  addition  to  inflammatory  redness  and  swelling, 
miliary  nodules. 

If  the  animal  be  examined  three  or  four  days  after  the  intra- 
peritoneal  injection  the  scrotum  will  appear  red  and  shining,  the 
epidermis  desquamating  or  suppurating,  and,  sometimes,  puru- 
lent matter  from  within  the  scrotum  discharging  by  perforations 
in  the  integument. 

The  animal  should  be  killed  at  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  day 
and,  with  proper  precaution,  tubes  of  agar,  or  preferably  potato, 
inoculated  with  material  from  either  the  tunica  vaginalis  testis  or 
testicle.  A  guinea-pig  will  usually  live  about  five  or  six  weeks,  and 
a  field  mouse,  which  is  even  more  susceptible,  three  or  four  days. 

To  obtain  pure  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  we  often  inoculate 
rabbits,  either  injecting  the  infective  material  into  the  abdominal 
cavity  or  into  the  groin.  In  the  latter  case  the  inguinal  lym- 
phatics soon  become  the  seat  of  tubercular  deposits  and  inocu- 
lation of  tubes  made  from  the  gland  under  aseptic  precautions 
will  result  in  the  cultivation  of  pure  growths. 

The  diagnosis  of  anthrax  in  man  is  sometimes  confirmed  by 
inoculation  experiments  upon  animals,  and  so  with  many  diseases. 

Feeding  experiments  are  somewhat  of  the  nature   of  inocula- 

c>  / 

tion  experiments  and  the  results  attained  of  equal  importance. 


416  TECHNIC. 

As  a  practical  illustration  of  this  method  we  may  cite  the 
cases  of  meat  poisoning  at  Welbeck  and  Notts,  England,  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  on  Food.  The  meat,  which  constituted  the 
principal  item  of  the  meal  preceding  the  outbreak,  when  fed  to 
dogs  produced  symptoms  almost  identical  with  those  observed 
in  the  human  victims,  thus  proving  decisively  the  meat  to  be  the 
carrier,  at  least,  of  the  poisoning  element. 

Examination  of  Sputum.  The  examination  of  sputum  will 
often  enable  a  physician  to  make  a  diagnosis  after  all  the  other 
methods  have  proven  unsatisfactory. 

Preparations  are  made  by  spreading  the  sputum  over  a  cover- 
glass,  care  being  taken  not  to  make  the  film  too  thin.  The  spu- 
tum may  be  spread  by  means  of  a  looped  platinum  needle,  a 
spreader  specially  made  for  the  purpose,  by  a  match-stick,  or 
wooden  toothpick.  The  film  is  dried  in  the  air  and  then  passed 
three  times  through  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  or  Bunsen  burner. 

In  examining  for  tubercle  bacilli  avoid  the  light,  frothy,  and 
thin  mucus  and  select  that  which  has  more  consistency. 

The  preparation  is  stained  by  one  of  the  methods  detailed  on 
a  previous  page,  the  selection  of  the  method  depending  upon 
the  organism  for  the  detection  of  which  the  examination  is  being 
conducted. 

Blood. 

Blood  may  contain  as  parasites  members  of  either  the  vege- 
table or  animal  kingdom. 

Of  the  vegetable  it  is  only  those  members  of  the  schizomy- 
cetes  which  demand  attention,  as  the  blood  of  man  has  never 
been  found  to  contain  as  an  etiologic  factor  of  disease  members 
of  either  the  hypomycetes  or  saccharomycetes,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  actinomyces,  the  definite  classification  of  which  is 
still  unsettled. 

Among  the  schizomycetes  which  have  been  found  in  the  blood 
are  the  bacillus  anthracis,  bacillus  typhosus,  bacillus  tuberculosis, 
bacillus  mallei,  bacillus  tetani  (?),  streptococcus  erysipelatis  (?), 
and  the  spirillum  of  relapsing  fever. 

The  following  method  may  be  adopted  in  preparing  blood  for 
microscopic  examination  to  determine  the  presence  of  micro- 
organisms : — 

The  tip  of  a  finger  is  thoroughly  cleansed  by  a  nail  brush  with 


BACTEKIOLOGIC    EXAMINATION    OF    IU.OOI).  417 

soap  and  water,  washed  with  sterile  water,  and  then  with  a 
I-IOOO  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Immerse  the  finder  in 
alcohol  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  sublimate  solution  and  corn 
plete  the  process  by  pouring  a  little  ether  over  the  finder  tip  and 
allowing  it  to  evaporate.  Puncture  the  finder  quite  deeply  with 
a  sterilized  needle.  The  first  drop  of  blood  which  flows  from 
the  wound  is  swept  away  with  a  sterili/.ed  platinum  needle; 
when  sufficient  blood  has  again  flowed  from  the  wound  it  is 
brought  into  contact  with  a  perfectly  clean  cover-glass.  Another 
cover-glass  is  immediately  laid  upon  the  first  with  the  drop  of 
blood  between.  By  gently  pressing  the  cover-glasses  the  blood 
forms  into  a  thin  layer  ;  grasp  each  cover-glass  by  a  pair  of  for- 
ceps and  separate  them  ;  each  will  be  found  covered  by  a  thin 
film  of  blood.  The  covers  are  then  dried  in  the  air  or  in  an 
exsiccator  carefully  protected  from  draughts  and  dust.  When 
the  film  has  become  perfectly  dry  the  covers  are  passed  three 
times  through  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner,  or  spirit  lamp,  with 
the  prepared  side  directed  upward.  Place  the  preparations, 
finally,  in  an  incubator  or  other  apparatus  where  a  temperature 
of  1 2O°  F.  may  be  maintained  for  several  hours.  The  prepara- 
tion should  now  be  stained  and  mounted.  For  staining 
microorganisms  the  methods  of  Gram,  Weigert's  modification 
of  Gram,  Loffler's  method,  described  under  staining,  and 
Giinther's  method,  described  below,  are  applicable.  The  or- 
ganisms may  be  stained  by  any  of  the  basic  anilin  dyes  in 
two  per  cent,  aqueous  solution;  but  the  result  will  not  be 
so  satisfactory  as  when  one  of  the  above  mentioned  methods 
are  employed. 

Anthrax.  The  bacillus  anthracis  occurs  in  the  blood  of  man 
and  animals  suffering  from  anthrax.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
in  persons  who  present  symptoms  identical  with  those  of  anthrax, 
no  bacilli  can  be  detected  in  the  blood  ;  to  make  certain  diagno- 
sis, therefore,  it  becomes  necessary  to  inject  a  few  drops  of  the 
blood  into  a  mouse  or  guinea-pig.  If  anthrax  bacilli  are  present 
the  animal  will  soon  exhibit  symptoms  of  the  disease,  and  it  its 
blood  is  now  examined  the  bacilli  will  be  found  in  abundance. 
For  staining  the  bacilli  prepare  cover-glass  films  of  the  blood,  as 
previously  detailed,  and  stain  by  Lofflcr's  method,  which  gives 
the  most  excellent  results. 


418  TECHNIC. 

Tuberculosis.  Prepare  the  cover-glass  as  described  and  stain 
by  one  of  the  methods  under  section  on  Staining. 

The  bacillus  tuberculosis  is  present  in  acute  general  miliary 
tuberculosis.  They  are,  usually,  few  in  number  and  may  at 
times  elude  detection. 

Glanders.  The  bacillus  mallei  is  found  in  the  blood  of  per- 
sons and  animals  suffering  from  glanders.  They  maybe  at  best 
stained  by  Loffler's  method.  There  is  no  staining  method  which 
will  with  certainty  distinguish  this  bacillus,  nor  will  its  growth  on 
the  various  culture  media.  To  make  a  positive  diagnosis  we  are 
compelled  to  resort  to  inoculation  experiments.  (See  page  414.) 

Typhoid  Fever.  The  bacillus  typhosus  has  been  repeatedly 
found  in  the  blood  of  typhoid  fever  patients.  For  fuller  descrip- 
tion of  this  organism  see  section  on  Examination  of  Feces.  (See 
page  422.) 

Spirillum  of  Relapsing  Fever.  The  spirillum  of  relapsing 
fever  is  said  by  many  observers  to  be  present  in  the  blood  only 
during  the  paroxysms,  and  for  this  reason  the  blood  should 
always  be  examined  during  the  fever  exacerbation.  The  objec- 
tive used  should  be  a  one-twelfth  inch  oil  immersion  in  conjunc- 
tion with  an  Abbe  condenser,  small  aperture.  The  spirilli  when 
brought  into  view  will  appear  as  wavy,  hair-like  lines  several 
times  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  a  red  corpuscle  and  having  a 
quick  vibratile  movement. 

v.  Jaksch  and  Sarmow  have  observed  during  the  interval 
between  the  paroxysms,  and  more  especially  when  an  outbreak  is 
impending,  certain  diplococcus-like  refractive  bodies.  With  the 
onset  of  the  disease  these  bodies  seemed  to  develop  into  short, 
rod-like  forms,  which  gradually  lengthened,  and  finally  formed 
spirilli.  v.  Jaksch  calls  particular  attention  to  the  clinical  im- 
portance of  these  bodies,  which  he  thinks  are  probably  the  spores 
of  the  spirilli.  They  being  present  in  the  blood  of  those  only 
who  are  suffering  from  relapsing  fever,  they  will  serve  to  charac- 
terize this  disease. 

To  detect  the  spirillum  of  relapsing  fever  in  dried  cover-glass 
preparations,  the  procedure  advocated  by  Giinther  is  the  most 
reliable.  Cover-glass  spreads  are  prepared  in  the  usual  way. 
Immerse  the  spread  for  ten  (10)  seconds  in  a  five  per  cent, 
solution  of  acetic  acid  ;  by  this  step  the  coloring  matter  of  the 


ANIMAL    PARASITES    IN    HI.OOI).  419 

red  corpuscles  is  destroyed.  Drive  off  as  much  of  the  acetic 
acid  as  possible  by  blowing  upon  the  cover  glass.  N'etitrali/.e 
what  acid  remains  by  holding  the  cover  glass,  film-side  down, 
over  the  open  mouth  of  a  flask  or  bottle  containing  strong  aqua 
ammonia  ;  the  escape  of  the  ammonia  fumes  is  augmented  by 
previously  shaking  the  container. 

Stain  the  preparation  in  the  Ehrlich-Weigert  gentian- or  methyl- 
violet-anilin-water  solution.  Mount  in  Canada  balsam  or  xylol. 

Many  other  microorganisms  have  been  found  in  the  blood, 
including  those  of  tetanus  (?),  erysipelas  (?),  and  suppuration. 
Prepare  cover-glass  spreads,  and  stain  by  one  of  the  methods 
given,  if  it  is  desired  to  examine  for  any  of  these  organisms. 

Animal   Parasites. 

Malaria.  According  to  eminent  authorities  the  hemato/oon 
of  malaria  exists  in  three  distinct  forms,  and  each  form  is 
characterized  by  giving  rise  to  certain  peculiar  and  well-marked 
clinical  phenomena,  necessitating  the  division  of  malaria  into 
three  clinical  varieties,  each  of  which  is  sharply  differentiated 
from  the  other. 

Hematozoon  of  Tertian  Ague.  If  the  blood  be  examined  a 
few  hours  subsequent  to  a  fever  paroxysm,  it  will  be  observed 
to  contain  small,  motile  bodies,  with  pale  outlines,  having  from 
one  to  three  pigmented  thread-like  processes  of  extreme  tenuity. 
Plehn  and  v.  Jaksch  claim  to  have  seen  bodies  of  this  descrip- 
tion during  the  apyrexial  period. 

The  parasite  penetrates  into  the  substance  of  the  red  blood- 
corpuscle  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  subsidence  of  the 
fever  paroxysm.  In  the  corpuscle  it  appears  as  an  actively 
moving,  deeply  pigmented  body.  The  pigment,  probably  the 
hemoglobin  of  the  corpuscle,  is  disposed  chiefly  in  the  periphery 
and  serves  to  sharply  differentiate  it  from  the  corpuscle.  The 
parasite  develops  and  ultimately  becomes  a  large,  motile,  pig- 
mented mass  of  protoplasm  which  completely  fills  the  corpuscles. 
The  attacked  corpuscles,  deprived  of  their  hemoglobin,  become 
extremely  pale.  After  reaching  its  full  development  the  parasite 
undergoes  segmentation  and  the  attacked  corpuscle  is  disinte- 
grated. In  two  days  more  the  endoglobular  development  is 
completed  ;  another  generation  of  hematozoons  is  brought  to 
maturity,  and  as  they  are  now  set  free  in  the  blood  the  lever 
paroxysm  again  manifests  itself. 


42O  TECHNIC. 

Hematozoon  of  Quartan  Ague.  The  earlier  development 
of  this  parasite  is  quite  similar  to  that  just  described,  though  the 
decoloration  of  the  red  corpuscle  is  not  so  rapid  and  the  pigment 
granules  are  larger. 

What  serves  particularly  to  distinguish  this  parasite  from  the 
foregoing  is  the  manner  of  segmentation.  First,  the  segments 
are  fewer,  the  number  being  from  six  to  twelve  ;  and,  second, 
the  process  of  segmentation  is  more  regular  and  requires  a 
longer  time. 

The  quotidian  type  is,  according  to  Golgi,  the  result  of  the 
blood  being  infected  by  three  broods  of  the  quartan  variety  ma- 
turing on  successive  days. 

Hematozoon  of  Acyclical  Ague  and  anomalous  forms. 
Just  before  the  onset  of  the  fever  paroxysm  in  persons  suffering 
with  this  form  of  the  disease  the  blood  is  seen  to  contain  small, 
circular  bodies  deeply  pigmented  in  the  center,  and  having  long, 
delicate,  but  irregular  flagella  ;  also,  very  small  bodies  endowed 
with  ameboid  movement  and  large,  round,  immobile,  almost 
colorless  forms,  having  a  circular  spot  of  pigment  either  in  the 
center  or  at  the  periphery. 

These  parasites  are  unlike  the  two  previously  described  in 
that  they  preserve  their  motility  for  a  long  period. 

Many  forms  of  the  malaria  parasite  have  been  described,  and 
for  the  sickle-shaped  organisms  which  Lavaran  first  described 
is  proposed  the  name  Lavarania  malariae  ;  for  the  other  forms 
recognized  as  belonging  to  typical  varieties  of  malaria  is  pro- 
posed the  term  Hemameba  malaria;. 

To  detect  this  organism  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  a  one-twelfth 
oil-immersion  lens  and  an  Abbe  condenser,  medium  aperture  of 
diaphragm. 

It  will  be  much  better,  however,  to  stain  the  specimen,  and  in 
this  way  eliminate  errors  which  might  otherwise  occur. 

The  method  for  staining  the  parasite  may  be  conducted  as 
follows:  Dissolve  in  a  0.6  per  cent,  salt  solution  sufficient 
methylene  blue  to  deeply  color  the  solution  ;  filter  it,  then  set 
aside  in  several  sterilized  test-tubes,  each  of  which  is  charged  with 
a  small  quantity.  Thoroughly  cleanse  the  tip  of  a  finger,  and 
place  upon  it  a  drop  of  the  staining  fluid,  and  through  the  drop 
prick  the  finger  with  a  clean  needle.  After  the  flowing  blood  has 


EXAMINATION    OF    FECKS.  421 

mixed  with  the  staining  solution,  it  is  brought  in  contact  with  a 
thin  cover-glass,  and  the  cover-glass,  with  the  prepared  side 
downward,  is  placed  upon  a  slide,  and  by  gentle  pressure  the 
mixture  of  stain  and  blood  spread  into  a  very  thin  layer.  To 
prevent  evaporation  ring  the  cover-glass  with  paraffin  wax. 
The  parasites  both  within  and  without  the  corpuscles  arc  stained 
a  light  blue,  and,  although  some  unaffected  corpuscles  may  take 
the  stain,  they  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  uniformity  of 
the  staining. 

To  make  a  permanent  preparation,  spread  the  blood  in  a  very 
thin  layer  and  treat  in  the  usual  way.  Stain  in  eosin-methylene 
blue  solution,  which,  according  to  Plehn's  formula,  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Concentrated  watery  solution  of  metliylene  blue,   .    .    .    .  Co  parts 
Eosin,  .5  per  cent,  solution,  in  75  per  cent,  alcohol,  ...  20     '• 

Distilled  water, 40     •• 

Caustic  potash,  20  per  cent,  solution, a  few  drops. 

The  effect  of  this  solution  is  to  stain  the  parasites  blue,  the 
red  corpuscles  light  red,  leucocytes  light  blue,  nuclei  deep  blue, 
and  the  eosinophil  granules  of  the  leucocytes  a  deep  red. 

The  filaria  sangninis  howinis,  as  found  in  the  blood,  is  the 
larva  of  the  adult  worm  which  inhabits  the  lymphatics.  The 
disease  is  found  only  in  the  inhabitants  of  very  warm  climates. 

The  parasite  is  to  be  found  in  the  blood  only  at  night ;  there- 
fore, all  investigations  undertaken  to  demonstrate  its  presence 
must  be  conducted  at  night. 

Feces. 

A  casual  biological  examination  of  the  ieces  may  be  made 
either  by  placing  a  small  quantity  of  feccs  upon  a  glass  slip, 
covering  it  with  a  circle,  and  then  pressing  it  out  in  a  thin  layer, 
or  by  putting  a  sample  of  feces  in  a  sterile  test-tube  or  other 
suitable  vessel  and  adding  several  times  its  bulk  of  sterile  water; 
then  setting  aside  the  vessel  in  a  ccol  place  for  several  hours  and 
examining  the  sediment  as  above.  When  it  is  desired  to  make 

o 

cultures,  collect  the  feces  in  an  aseptic  napkin  or  a  sterile  vessel. 
As  the  vegetable  and  animal  parasites  are  of  the  greatest  interest 
to  the  sanitarian  and  physician,  and  time  and  space  being  at  a  pre- 
mium, they  only  will  be  considered. 


422  TECHNIC. 

KocJis  Comma  Bacillus.  The  cholera  bacillus  is  most  readily 
detected  by  the  method  of  Schottelius.  A  small  quantity  of  the 
stool  is  placed  in  a  glass  capsule  containing  an  equal  amount  of 
alkaline  meat  broth.  The  mixture  is  incubated  for  twelve  hours 
in  a  temperature  of  30  to  40°  C.  The  cholera  spirillum  forms  a 
pellicle  which  may  be  transferred  to  a  cover-glass,  stained,  and 
mounted.  Plates  and  tubes  of  gelatin,  etc.,  are  inoculated  from 
this  pellicle. 

Chemical  tests  have  been  developed  for  distinguishing  cul- 
tures of  Koch's  spirillum.  The  indol  reaction  first  described 
by  Bujwid  and  by  Dunham  may  be  obtained  by  adding  to 
bouillon  cultures,  which  have  been  incubating  for  twelve  hours, 
or  gelatin  cultures  after  liquefaction,  a  few  drops  of  pure  sul- 
phuric acid.  If  the  cholera  spirillum  is  present,  a  reddish-violet 
or  purplish-red  color  quickly  appears.  The  spirillum  of  Met- 
schnikoff  also  develops  this  reaction  under  the  same  conditions. 

For  staining  cover-glass  preparations,  watery  solution  of  basic 
anilin  dyes  may  be  employed.  They  remain  in  the  stain  twenty 
minutes,  are  then  rinsed  in  one-half  per  cent,  solution  of  acetic 
acid,  followed  by  immersion  in  water.'  They  are  dried  in  the 
air  and  mounted  in  Canada  balsam.  Babes  recommends  for 
section  placing  them  in  a  watery  solution  of  fuchsin  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  washing  in  water  faintly  acidulated  with  acetic  acid 
or  in  a  i  :  1000  bichlorid  solution,  passed  rapidly  through  alco- 
hol, cleared  in  clove  oil,  and  mounted  in  balsam.  Finkler-Prior 
describes  a  comma  bacillus  in  cholera  nostras  which  is  larger 
than  the  Koch  spirillum.  The  role  of  this  organism  as  an 
exciting  cause  of  disease  is  still  nebulous. 

The  typhoid  bacillus  is  quite  difficult  to  separate  from  the 
stools.  It  may  be  accomplished  by  agar  plating  ;  nutrient  agar 
containing  0.2  per  cent  to  0.5  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  is  a  useful 
adjunct  in  isolating  this  organism. 

Parietti's  method  has  been  tested  by  other  investigators  and 
has  given  satisfactory  results,  especially  in  isolating  the  typhoid 
bacillus  from  water.  The  solution  he  employs  is  made  by  add- 
ing together  five  parts  of  carbolic  acid,  four  parts  of  pure  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  a  hundred  parts  of  distilled  water. 

The  procedure  is  as  follows  :  Several   test  tubes  are  charged 


ANIMAL    PARASITES    IN    FKCES.  423 

with  IO  c.c.  each  of  neutral  bouillon  and  sterili/.ed.  To  each 
tube  add  from  three  to  nine  drops  of  the  acid  solution.  Place 
them  in  the  incubator  for  forty-eight  hours,  when,  if  no  growth 
develops,  add  from  one  to  ten  drops  of  the  suspected  water.  If 
the  bacilli  are  present,  the  bouillon  becomes  turbid  after  twenty- 
four  hours.  By  plating  pure  cultures  of  the  typhoid  bacillus 
may  be  obtained. 

The  method  proposed  by  Ha/.en  and  White  has  also  been  favor- 
ably reported  upon.  The  operation  of  the  test  may  be  conducted 
as  follows  :  Plate  the  suspected  water  in  agar-agar  plates.  Incu- 
bate at  a  temperature  of  40°  C.  If  typhoid  fever  bacilli  are- 
present  they  will  develop  in  the  form  of  colonies  in  the  course  of 
two  or  three  days.  This  test  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the 
common  bacilli  of  water  do  not  thrive  well,  if  at  all,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  C.,  while  this  is  the  optimum  temperature  for  the 
typhoid  bacillus. 

Theobald  Smith  asserts  that  typhoid  fever  bacilli  do  not  pro- 
duce gas  when  grown  in  culture  media  containing  cane,  grape, 
or  milk  sugar,  and  may  be  in  this  way  distinguished  from  the 
bacillus  coli  communis  and  bacillus  of  hog  cholera.  The  authors 
do  not  think  that  much  confidence  should  be  put  in  this  test,  and 
if  used  at  all,  it  should  only  be  to  confirm  other  tests. 

To  stain  cover-glass  spreads  of  the  bacillus  typhosus  float  the 
cover  glass,  film  down,  upon  a  2  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of 
gentian  violet  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  1 00°  F.  Rinse  in  .5  per  cent,  acetic  acid  in  water,  wash 
in  distilled  water,  dry  in  the  air,  and  mount  in  balsam. 

The  bacillus  tuberculosis  in  feces  is  detected  by  preparing 
cover-glass  spreads  and  the  special  staining  method  previously 
described.  (Seep.  413.) 

The  parasitic  protozoa  include  members  of  the  Rhi/.opoda, 
Gregarines,  and  Infusoria. 

Rhizopoda.  Ameba  coli  are  round  or  slightly  oblong  and 
contractile  bodies  with  a  diameter  of  20  to  35  /«.  The  protoplasm 
is  granular  and  quite  highly  refractive  in  the  active  stage  ;  they 
contain  a  round  nucleus  and  hyaline  vesicles.  The  ameba  have 
no  distinct  cell  wall.  They  often  enclose  red  blood  corpuscles, 
pus  cells,  microorganisms,  and  other  microscopic  objects  with 
which  they  come  in  contact.  The  ameba  coli  are  usually  found 


424 


TECH  NIC. 


in  small,  jelly-like    masses,  though    they  may  at  times  be  so 
numerous  as  to  be  found  in  any  portion  of  the  stool. 


FIG.  134. 


FIG.  135. 


AMEBA  COLI  (After  Leuckhardt.) 


a.  MEGASTOMA   ENTRKICUM    (Grasse)     b.    CER- 

COMONAS    INTESTINAL1S,  h'NCYSTEU    FORMS.      C. 

CKRCOMONAS  INTRSI  INALIS  AFTEK  THK  Loss  OF 
ITS  TENTACLES  (LamH.)  (After  Jaksch.) 


FIG.  136. 


t 


Grcgarincs.  Sporozoa.  Coccidium  perforans,  found  infesting 
the  liver  and  intestinal  mucous  membranes,  are  elliptical-shaped 
bodies  with  a  long  diameter  of  22  //.  They  have  a  cell  wall  and 
enclose  granular  nuclei  which  are,  for  the  most  part,  massed  to 
the  center.  The  coccidia  are  usually  found  in  large  numbers. 

Infusoria  Cercomonas  intestinalis,  a  pear- 
shaped  organism,  the  length  of  which  is  from  10 
to  1 2  //.  They  possess  two  terminal  filaments,  one 
about  as  long  as  the  organism  and  rigid,  the 
other  much  longer  and  very  delicate,  and  which 
during  life  is  the  organ  of  locomotion,  as  by  its 
rapid  vibrations  the  cercomonas  is  propelled. 
The  cercomonas  is  frequently  found  in  cholera, 
typhus,  typhoid,  and  other  acute  or  chronic 
diarrhea!  conditions. 

Trichomonas  intestinalis.  The  body,  15  p.  in  length,  is  pear- 
shaped,  and  somewhat  more  bulging  than  the  cercomonas.  It 
possesses  a  tail  and  a  lateral  ciliated  comb,  which  usually  con- 
sists of  about  twelve  cilia.  This  organism  is  destitute  of  flagella. 
Paramecium  coli.  The  body  is  symmetrical,  short,  and  oval, 
measuring  0.07  to  o.  I  mm.  long  by  005  to  0.07  mm.  broad. 
The  anterior  end,  which  appears  truncated,  has  a  short  peristome 
extending  inward  to  the  right  and  terminating  in  a  gullet.  The 
anal  opening  at  the  posterior  extremity  is  not  distinct.  The 
paramecium  coli  is  covered  with  cilia,  contains  a  slightly  bent 


CERCOMONAS.     (/•>•<«// 

Leuckhara't.) 
a.    Larger  variety,      b , 

smaller  variety. 


TEN  I A    IS    FKCKS.  435 

elliptical  nucleus  and  two  contractible  vacuoles  which  lie  on  the 
right  side. 

Toiia.  The  diagnosis  of  tapeworm  may  be  made  with  the 
microscope,  even  before  the  appearance  in  the  stool  of  the  pro- 
glottides, by  detecting  the  eggs  in  the  feces.  To  examine  for 
the  eggs  of  tapeworms  place  some  of  the  feces  in  a  jar  with 
distilled  water  and  from  day  to  day  decant  the  water  and  then 
immediately  replace  it  with  fresh  water  until  the  greater  bulk  of 
the  feces  have  been  dissolved.  A  small  quantity  of  the  sediment 
should  be  mounted  in  glycerin  and  examined  by  a  medium 
power  objective,  when  the  eggs,  if  present,  will  be  readily 
detected.  If  one  has  proglottides,  or  the  head  of  a  tapeworm, 
and  wishes  to  ascertain  to  what  species  it  belongs,  mount  it  in 
glycerin  and  examine  with  a  low  power  objective,  that  the 
characteristics  of  the  specimen  maybe  clearly  observed. 

Tajnia  mediocanellata  :  The  head  of  this  parasite  contains 
four  large,  deeply  pigmented  suckers,  and  is  devoid  of  a  rostellum 
and  hooklets.  The  length  of  the  segments  increases  very 
gradually.  The  uterus  is  branched,  more  so  than  that  of  the  T. 
solium,  while  at  the  side  of  the  proglottis  is  to  be  seen  the 
genital  pore. 

Tamia  solium:  The  head  of  the  tajnia  solium  is  of  a  some- 
what quadrilateral  form,  measuring  about  410  of  an  inch,  and  is 
of  a  dark  color.  It  has  four  large,  circular  suckers,  between 
which  is  the  rostellum,  a  prominent  rounded  elevation,  having 
around  the  margin  two  rows  of  hooklets.  The  hooklets  num- 
ber about  twenty-six  and  those  of  the  anterior  row  are  the 
larger.  Near  the  head  the  proglottides  are  broader  than  they  are 
long,  but  as  they  recede  from  the  head  the  length  increases  much 
faster  than  the  breadth,  so  that  about  three  feet  from  the  head 
the  proglottides  become  nearly  quadrilateral.  The  branching  of 
the  uterus  (Fig.  48,  p.  150)  is  not  nearly  so  well  developed  as  in 
the  T.  mediocanellata,  and  the  genital  pore  opens  slightly  behind 
the  middle  of  the  segment. 

Bothriocephalus  latus  :  The  head,  measuring  -/._,-  inch  long 
and  -.-,1-;  inch  broad,  is  egg-shaped  and  flattened.  It  has  two 
lateral  suctorial  grooves.  Hooks  may  be  present,  but  if  so  are 
without  a  rostellum.  The  proglottides  are  broader  than  they 
are  long,  but  the  difference  is  not  so  marked  as  they  recede  from 
-27 


426 


TECH  NIC. 


the  head.     The  particular  characteristic  of  this  tapeworm  is  in 
the  rosette  arrangement  of  the  uterus. 

Microscopic  Examination  of  Meats.  To  make  a  rapid  ex- 
amination of  meat,  the  Germans  employ  an  instrument  made  of 
two  pieces  of  plate  glass  8  inches  by  \y>  inches.  The  lower  plate 
is  about  3g  of  an  inch  thick  and  marked  by  transverse  lines 
dividing  it  into  twelve  spaces.  At  each  end  is  placed  an  upright 
brass  post  with  threads  cut  for  a  milled  thumb-screw.  These 
poles  pass  through  holes  in  the  upper  glass  plate.  The  upper 
plate  is  *s  of  an  inch  thick,  has  a  longitudinal  marking  4  of  an 
inch  wide,  and  numbers  from  I  to  24  over  the  spaces  of  the  lower 
plate.  A  section  of  meat  is  cut,  placed  between  the  glass  plates, 
the  thumb-screws  tightened,  and  the  meat  pressed  out  in  a  very 

FIG.  137. 


THE  AMERICAN  COMPRESSOR. 

thin  layer.  This  is  placed  under  a  low  power  of  the  microscope 
and  examined.  The  number  of  the  diseased  and  suspicious  sec- 
tions are  noted,  then  if  desired  or  if  necessary  a  more  critical  ex- 
amination may  be  made.  By  this  procedure  a  great  number  of 
specimens  may  be  examined  by  an  expert  in  a  very  short  space 
of  time.  Fig.  137  shows  an  American  compressor  which  is 
manipulated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  German  instrument, 
though  it  is  without  markings  and  divisions. 

Warren's  Cannula,  a  cut  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  138,  is  used 
for  removing  specimens  of  tissue  from  the  living  animal.  In 
using  the  instrument  the  cannula  is  introduced  deeply  into  the 
tissue,  slight!}'  withdrawn,  and  again  forced  in,  but  this  time  at 
an  angle  so  as  to  completely  sever  the  segment  within  the  cannula 


MICKOSCOHC    EXAMINATION    ()l-     MKAT.  427 

at  the  bottom.  The  cannula  with  specimen  is  wholly  \\itlulraun 
and  the  rod  introduced  at  the  upper  end  ;  as  the  rod  is  pushed 
through,  the  .segment  of  tissue  in  the  lower  end  of  the  cannula 
is  forced  out.* 

Tuberculosis.  Prepare  and  stain  specimens  of  sputum  or  any 
other  discharge  by  one  of  the  methods  already  detailed.  The 
gross  lesions  have  been  described  on  page  143.  II  any  doubt 
exists  as  to  the  nature  of  the  lesions,  stain  and  mount  according 
to  the  Koch-Khrlich  method  (page  414.) 

Actinomyccs.  The  appearance  of  actinomyces  is  so  char- 
acteristic (see  Fig.  7)  that  it  cannot  be  at  the  present  time  con- 
fused with  any  known  organism.  All  collections  of  fluid,  the 
diagnosis  of  which  is  obscure,  should  be  critically  examined  for 

FIG.  138. 


WAKRKS'S  TROCAR  AND  CAXXTLA. 


the  fungus.      Prepare  cover-glass  specimens  and  sections  in  the 
usual  way  and  stain  by  one  of  the  following  methods  :— 

Plant's  Method.  Stain  sections  for  two  hours  in  Xeilson's 
carbo-fuchsin  solution,  or,  if  the  solution  be  maintained  at  a 
temperature  of  40°  C,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  stain  for  from 
20  to  30  minutes.  Wash  the  sections  in  distilled  water  and  then 
immerse  for  ten  minutes  in  a  saturated  alcoholic  solution  i 
picric  acid.  Again  wash  the  section  in  distilled  water,  then  in 
50  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  finally  transfer  to  absolute  alcohol  to 
dehydrate,  clear  in  cedar  oil,  and  mount  in  balsam. 


428  TECHNIC. 

Wethered  recommends  staining  the  fungus  in  a  five  per  cent, 
aqueous  solution  of  rubin  for  ten  minutes,  then  washing  in  dis- 
tilled water  until  the  sections  are  of  a  delicate  pink  color,  when 
they  are  transferred  for  three  minutes  to  absolute  alcohol. 
Place  the  section  upon  a  glass  slip  and  stain  according  to  Wei- 
gert's  modification  of  Gram's  method. 

AntJirax.  Sections  of  the  diseased  meat  are  prepared  and 
stained  by  Weigert's  method;  or  the  juice  expressed  from  the 
tissues  is  spread  on  cover  glasses  and  stained  by  same  method. 
As  anthrax  is  rapidly  fatal  in  mice,  usually  producing  death 
within  twenty-four  hours,  we  may  resort  to  inoculation  experi- 
ments to  confirm  our  diagnosis. 

Glanders.  The  bacillus  mallei  may  be  found  in  the  discharge 
from  the  ulcerated  nasal  passages,  also  in  the  discharge  from  the 
ruptured  "  farcy  buds  "  and  from  the  surface  of  the  ulcers.  The 
bacillus  mallei  is  quite  difficult  to  stain  ;  the  best  method  may  be 
obtained  by  Loffler's  method  modified,  as  already  described. 

Trichina  spiralis.  Preparations  are  best  made  by  teasing  with 
fine  needles  a  thin,  longitudinal  section  of  muscle,  preferably 
taken  from  the  diaphragm,  either  end  of  the  masticatory  mus- 
cles, abdominal  or  the  intercostal  muscles,  as  these  are  the  most 
likely  to  be  the  muscles  affected.  Place  the  specimen  on  a  glass 
slip  and  cover  it  with  acetic  acid  or  a  solution  consisting  of  liquor 
potassa,  i  part,  water  10  parts,  until  it  becomes  transparent,  wash 
the  specimen  in  water,  clear  and  mount  in  glycerin.  If  the  cap- 
sule should  be  calcified  dissolve  the  lime  salts  in  a  weak  solution 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  (See  Fig.  50,  page  151.) 

After  singling  out  a  cyst,  rupture  it  with  a  fine  needle,  turn 
out  upon  a  slide  the  trichina;  this  performance  may  be  repeated 
several  times.  Stain  the  trichina  with  Ranvier's  picrocarmin 
and  mount  in  glycerin  or  Farrant's  medium.  When  the  mount- 
ing is  completed  examine  the  specimen  under  a  magnifying 
power  of  from  50  to  100  diameters.  A  low-power  examination 
may  be  made  by  a  compressor  as  already  described. 

Ilyatid  Cysts  affect  particularly  the  liver  and  peritoneum, 
though  none  of  the  soft  tissues  are  exempt.  The  disease  is  clue 
to  the  cystic  form  of  the  t;unia  echinococctis  localizing  in  the 
tissues.  In  this  country  it  is  seldom  met.  The  fluid  of  the 
cyst  is  non-albuminous,  hence,  no  precipitate  is  obtained  by 


HACTKKIA    IN    SKIN    DISKASKS.  439 

treating  with  nitric  acid  or  by  heating.  To  examine  the  fluid 
microscopically  fill  a  conical  glass  and  set  aside  until  sedimenta- 
tion occurs.  Withdraw  some  of  the  sediment,  mix  it  with  l-'ar- 
rant's  medium,  and  mount.  If  examined  under  a  low  power  the 
scolices  may  be  seen  as  round  or  somewhat  oval  bodies  with  at 
one  end  a  disc  of  a  dark  color.  These  bodies  are  granular  and,  fre- 
quently, may  be  seen  in  them  thesuckers  and  booklets.  The  hook  • 
lets  may  be  detected,  also,  free  in  the  fluid  even  after  suppura- 
tion has  occurred.  These  characteristic  bodies  will  appear,  when 
lying  flat,  as  sickle-shaped,  with  broad,  bumped  bases.  Peculiar 
bodies,  havinga  slight  resemblance  to  the  booklets  of  the  cchino- 
coccus,  are  sometimes  observed  in  cysts  of  an  entirely  different 
nature  and  may  be  misleading  \\-ben  seen  for  the  first  time.  If, 
however,  the  slides  are  kept  for  twenty-four  hours,  or  if  the  fluid 
be  examined  twenty-four  hours  after  removal,  these  bodies  will 
have  completely  disappeared. 

Skin  Diseases. 

Several  members  of  the  hypomycetes  or  mold  fungi  are  proven 
to  be  the  etiologic  elements  in  certain  diseases  of  the  skin. 
Thin,  filamentous  organisms  were  long  ago  ascertained  to  be 
constantly  associated  with  favus  and  tinea  tonsurans,  and  more 
recently  Grawitz  has  conclusive!}'  proved  them  to  be  the  exciting 
causes. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  parasitic  mold  fungi  is  that,  with  the 
exception  of  two  species,  they  are  to  be  found  only  in  the 
superficial  layers  of  the  skin.  The  various  mycoses  of  the  skin 
and  the  responsible  organisms  may  be  enumerated  as  follows:  — 
Favus,  Achorion  schonleinii  ;  Tinea  tonsurans,  Trichophyton 
tonsurans  ;  Tinea  versicolor,  Microsporon  furfur;  Tinea  sycosis, 
an  organism  closely  allied  if  not  indentical  with  T.  tonsurans. 

Tinea  versicolor:  The  microsporon  furfur  may  be  found  in 
the  upper  layers  of  the  epidermis.  The  scales  should  be  placed 
in  dilute  liquor  potassa  for  several  minutes,  gently  washed  in 
distilled  water,  and  mounted  in  glycerin  or  Farrant's  medium,  S: 
The  oranism  will  be  brouht  clearly  into  view  when  examined 


Gum  arable  (picked)  ..............    4  drains 

Camphor  water,      ...............    4  tluulr.ims 

Glycerin,     ............. 

Mix,  dissolve  by  gentle  heat  over  water  bath,  filter  thrush  muslin. 


43O  TECHNIC. 

by  a  one-sixth  inch  objective,  with  medium  aperture  in  dia- 
phragm. The  hyphae  are  seen  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  network 
seen  upon  the  surface  of  cells,  and  scattered  here  and  there  may 
be  observed  the  conidia. 

In  favus,  tinea  tonsurans,  and  tinea  sycosis  the  organisms  are 
to  be  found  in  the  scabs,  investing  the  hairs,  and  often,  particu- 
larly in  favus,  penetrating  into  the  root-sheath  and  forming  by 
their  hyphae  a  perplexing  interlacement. 

Hairs  plucked  out  by  the  roots,  or  scabs,  may  be  treated  as 
described  above  for  the  demonstration  of  the  microsporon  furfur, 
when  the  organism  will  be  clearly  discerned. 

Thrush.  The  oidium  albicans  or  thrush  fungus  is  to  be  found 
in  the  white  patches  which  form  in  the  mouth  of  persons  suffer- 
ing from  thrush.  It,  like  other  members  of  the  oidium  family,  is 
capable  of  forming  a  mycelium,  and  from  this  peculiarity,  though 
the  cells  when  cultivated  in  media  containing  large  quantities  of 
sugar  are  more  like  the  torula,  many  observers  class  it  among 
the  hypomycetes. 

To  detect  the  organism  detach  a  portion  of  the  neo-membrane 
and  mount  it  in  glycerin.  Examined  with  one-sixth-inch  objec- 
tive and  small  aperture  in  diaphragm  the  fungus  will  be  seen  as 
long  branching  filaments  composed  of  segments.  The  segments 
are  of  various  lengths  and  become  much  smaller  toward  the  ends 
of  the  filaments.  Bright  refractive  bodies  may  be  seen  in  the 
segments,  and  about  the  filaments  certain  oval  bodies  supposed 
to  be  the  conidia. 

Scabies.  This  disease  is  caused  by  the  itch  mite,  an  animal 
parasite  which  infests  the  skin. 

The  itch  mite,  or  acarus  scabiei,  may  be  found  wandering  over 
the  surface  of  the  body  (male)  or  in  furrows  in  the  skin 
(female). 

The  adult  acarus  has  a  round  body  with  projecting  head  and 
eight  legs.  The  four  front  legs  are  provided  with  suckers  and 
the  four  hind  ones  are  covered  with  hairs. 

In  the  male  the  innermost  pair  of  the  posterior  four  are  also 
furnished  with  suckers. 

The  female,  which  is  larger  than  the  male,  measures  about  ,;',, 
of  an  inch  in  length. 

Young  acari   have  but  six  legs    previous   to   the  shedding  «>f 


STAINING    OF    BACILLUS    LKI'K.l.  43! 

their  skin,  after  which  may  be  seen  eight  developing  legs.  The 
eggs  of  the  parasite  measure  about  the  ,,'„  of  an  inch  in  length 
and  the  YJ)(T  of  an  inch  in  width. 

After  securing  an  itch  mite  it  may  be  mounted  in  glycerin  or 
Farrant's  medium  ;  first,  however,  treating  it  with  dilute  solution 
of  caustic  potash  and  washing  in  distilled  water. 

Examine  with  a  low-power  objective,  medium  aperture  in 
diaphragm,  without  condenser. 

Leprosy.  The  bacillus  lepne  may  be  obtained  by  clamping  a 
nodule  and  thoroughly  cleansing  the  surface  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  described  under  section  on  Blood,  then  puncturing  the 
nodule  with  a  sterilixed  needle.  Touch  the  cover-glass,  pre- 
viously thoroughly  cleansed,  to  the  fluid  which  escapes  from  the 
puncture  and  immediately  apply  over  it  another  cover-glass. 
Spread  the  drop  into  as  thin  a  layer  as  possible  and  separate  the 
cover-glasses.  Dry  the  film  in  the  air  and  then  pass  it  through 
the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner  or  spirit  lamp,  and  stain  by  one  of 
the  following  methods  : — 

Baumgarten  :  Float  the  cover-glass,  film  down,  upon  a  dilute 
alcoholic  solution  of  fuchsin  for  ten  minutes,  treat  with  acidulated 
alcohol  (nitric  acid  I  part,  alcohol  10  parts)  for  fifteen  seconds, 
rinse  in  distilled  water,  and  contrast  stain  with  one  per  cent, 
aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue  for  twenty  minutes,  wash  in 
distilled  water,  dry  in  the  air,  and  mount  in  balsam.  The  leprosy 
bacilli  are  stained  red  and  the  background  blue.  Tubercle 
bacilli  do  not  stain  in  so  short  a  period. 

Lustgarten :  Stain  with  the  anilin-water-gentian-violet,  or 
-fuchsin,  described  under  tubercle  staining,  and  bleach  in  a  one 
per  cent,  sodium  chloriclate  solution  for  thirty  minutes  or  so, 
and  then  wash  thoroughly  in  distilled  water.  Tubercle  bacilli 
are  more  readily  decolori/ed  than  the  lepra  bacilli  in  this  solu- 
tion. 

Lepra  bacilli  have  been  found  in  sputum.*  One  peculiarity  ot 
this  bacillus  is  the  exceedingly  perplexing  groups  in  which  it  is 
so  often  found. 

The   writers   have   obtained  the  best   results  in  staining  tissue 


432  TECHNIC. 

containing  this  organism  by  treating  the  section  for  twelve  hours 
with  the  anilin-water-gentian-violet  solution.  After  staining, 
the  sections  are  first  rinsed  in  distilled  water  to  remove  the 
superfluous  stain,  then  treated  for  one  minute  in  the  tincture  of 
chlorid  of  iron,  rinsed  for  a  few  minutes  in  distilled  water,  and 
then  in  acetone  for  five  minutes  ;  finally,  in  xylol,  dried,  and 
mounted  in  xylol  balsam. 

Tetanus.  The  specific  organism  of  this  disease  is  an  anaerobe, 
and  may  be  found  in  the  discharges  from  wounds  of  persons 
suffering  from  traumatic  tetanus.  It  is  quite  a  widely  distributed 
organism  and  may  often  be  discovered  in  superficial  strata  of 
earth  and  in  the  street  sweepings  from  large  cities.  It  is  isolated 
from  other  organisms  by  subjecting  substances  containing  spores 
to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  for  one-half  hour  to  one  hour.  Suit- 
able tubes  are  inoculated  and  the  air  in  the  tube  displaced  with 
hydrogen  (see  Anaerobic  Cultures).  It  stains  by  the  basic  ani- 
lin  colors  and  by  Gram's  method  ;  by  Ziehl's  double  staining 
method  the  spores  and  bacilli  are  both  stained.  To  demonstrate 
its  presence  in  wound  discharges  and  in  earth  recourse  is  fre- 
quently had  to  inoculation  experiments.  Mice,  rabbits,  and  guinea 
pigs  are  especially  susceptible  to  the  bacillus  tetani. 

Croupons  Pneumonia.  The  organism  of  this  disease  (micro- 
coccus  pneumonia;  crouposae)  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
pneumo-bacillus  of  Friedlander,  which  it  much  resembles,  in  tne 
manner  of  its  staining.  The  micrococcus  pneumonias  crouposse 
stains  by  the  anilin  colors  and  Gram's  method,  while  by  the 
latter  method  Friedlander's  bacillus  is  decolorized.  Inoculation 
experiments  may  be  necessary  to  confirm  its  presence  ;  if  so,  rab- 
bits will  be  found  very  susceptible  to  this  poison. 

Rhinoscleroma.  The  bacillus  which  is  found  constantly  asso- 
ciated with  this  disease  is  by  many  regarded  as  the  etiologic 
factor.  The  bacilli  are  present  in  the  newly  formed  tubercles,  in 
the  lymphatic  spaces,  and  contiguous  tissues  also,  and  most  com- 
monly in  the  large  hyaline  cells  peculiar  to  this  affection. 

The  method  adopted  byAlvare/  to  demonstrate  their  presence 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  Small  pieces  of  diseased  tissue  are 
placed  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  one  per  cent,  osniic  acid  solu- 
tion, washed  well  in  flowing  water,  and  hardening  completed  in 
absolute  alcohol.  Thin  sections  are  placed  in  a  hot  anilin-water- 


ERYSIPELAS,    GONOKKHKA,    SYPHILIS.  433 

methyl-violet,  or  gentian-violet  solution  for  a  few  minutes, 
treated  by  Gram's  method,  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Erysipelas.  The  streptococcus  erysipelatis  may  be  obtained 
from  the  contents  of  the  blebs  which  form  over  the  affected  area 
in  this  disease.  Many  consider  this  organism  and  the  strepto- 
coccus pyogenes  as  identical,  v.  Lingclsheim  is,  however,  of 
the  opinion  that  there  are  two  great  groups  of  streptococci, 
neither  of  which  manifest  any  peculiar  characteristic  in  develop- 
ment nor  morphology  except  when  cultivated  in  bouillon.  The 
streptococcus  erysipelatis  in  bouillon  culture  does  not  form  the 
conglomerate  masses  so  characteristic  of  the  streptococcus 
pyogenes,  and,  further,  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  not  being 
pathogenic  for  mice. 

Gonorrlica.  Gonococci  are  found  in  the  purulent  discharges 
which  characterize  gonorrhea.  The  organism  is  a  peculiar  roll 
or  biscuit-shaped  diplococcus,  and  may  be  distinguished  from 
similar  microorganisms  by  being  deprived  of  its  color  when 
treated  by  Gram's  method,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  is  found 
wit/tin  the  pus  cells.  The  gonococci  stain  with  methyl-violet, 
gentian-violet,  fuchsin,  and  methylene  blue,  the  latter  giving  the 
best  results.  To  stain  gonorrheal  discharge,  make  a  thin  spread 
of  it  upon  a  thin  cover-glass,  and  when  perfectly  dry  pass  three 
times  through  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  film  side  up.  Hold  the 
cover-glass,  film  up,  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp  and  cover 
with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  eosin.  Replace  the  stain  from  a 
dropper  as  the  alcohol  evaporates.  There  is  some  danger  of 
the  alcohol  taking  fire,  if  it  does,  simply  blow  out  the  flame. 
Continue  this  process  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  remove  all 
superfluous  stains  with  filter  paper.  Moat  the  cover-glass,  film 
down,  upon  a  concentrated  alcoholic  solution  of  methylene  blue 
for  thirty  seconds.  Wash  in  distilled  water  for  a  few  minutes, 
then  in  sixty  per  cent,  alcohol  for  four  or  five  minutes  ;  dry  in 
the  air  and  mount  in  Canada  balsam  or  dammar. 

Protoplastic  masses  of  leucocytes,  pus  cells,  etc.,  are  stained 
a  delicate  pink,  the  nuclei  a  slightly  darker  red  color,  and  the 
gonococci  blue. 

Syphilis.  The  bacilli  of  syphilis  may  be  found  in  discharges 
from  the  primary  lesion  and  syphilitic  ulcers,  and  in  other  syph- 
ilitic lesions.  Sections  are  stained  according  to  Lustgarten's 


434  TECHNIC. 

method,  which  is  as  follows  :  Stain  sections  from  12  to  24  hours 
in  the  anilin-water-gentian-violet  solution,  and  two  hours  before 
removing  the  sections  maintain  the  stain  at  a  temperature  of 
60°  C.  From  the  stain  the  sections  are  transferred  to  absolute 
alcohol,  then  to  a  1.5  per  cent,  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash  for  ten  minutes,  and  then  for  one  minute  in  concentrated 
sulphurous  acid.  This  process  must  be  repeated  until  the  sec- 
tions are  completely  decolorized.  The  sections  are  immersed  in 
absolute  alcohol  to  dehydrate;  cleared  in  oil  of  cloves,  and 
mounted  in  Canada  balsam. 


APPENDIX. 


METRIC  SYSTEM— ENGLISH. 


Unit  of  length, tlie  meter. 

"     "  capacity, "    liter. 

"     "  weight, "    gram. 


I  Meter 
I  Liter 

I  Gram 


(  the  ten-millionth    part  of  a  quarter   of   (lie  I  . 

\        earth's  circumference  at  the  equator.        f        39-37     lr>cl> 

the  capacity  of  the  cube  of  ,',,  of  a  meter  —  33.  8    Troy  ounce. 

J  weight  of  distilled  water,  at  point  of  maxi-  \ 
mum  density,  4°  C.,  which  fills  the  cube  I 
I      of  T-Jff  of  a  meter.  j 


"5  4.54  grains. 


Multiples  of  these  are  expressed  by  the  Greek  prefixes,  as  Deca,  ten  ;  Hecto,  one 
hundred;  Kilo,  one  thousand  ;  Myria,  ten  thousand. 

Fractional  parts  are  denoted  by  Deci,  one-tenth  ;  Centi,  one-hundredth ;  Mille, 
one-thousandth. 


I 

Meter 

3.28       feet 

39.37     inches. 

I 

Decimeter 

•33 

3.94     or  about  4       inches. 

I 

Centimeter 

.03 

•39    "r     "          ,',  inch. 

I 

Millimeter 

.003       " 

.039  or     •'           .,',  inch. 

I 

Micro-millimeter  = 

"i  o\)(J  °f  a  millimeter 

or  approximately   .-,,',,,,,  inch. 

! 

Decameter 

lo.          meters 

32.8        'feet                        303.7  in. 

I 

Hectometer 

IOO. 

328.            "                   3-937-    '"• 

I 

Kilometer 

IOOO. 

'     3.2S°-7                             3<>.37'-    i"- 

I 

Myriameter 

10,000.             '• 

32,807.             ''               303.710.    in. 

I 

Liter 

1,000.  cubic  centimeters  ;           33.8        fluid  ounce.-. 

I 

Deciliter 

IOO.          " 

3.38 

1 

Centiliter 

10.          " 

"                         2.70         "      drams. 

I 

Milliliter 

I.       " 

"                            .27      dr.  or  10.2  minims. 

I 

Decaliter 

10,000.       " 

"                           2.041    gallon-. 

I 

Hectoliter 

100,000.       " 

2(1.419 

I 

Kiloliter 

1,000,000.        " 

"                       204.10 

I 

Myrialiter 

10,000,000.       " 

-   2.641.') 

I  (iram 

15-4340 

grains,  Tr<>v,  or  '  of  a  dram. 

I  Decigram 

1-5434 

•' 

I  Centigram 

•1543 

I   Milligram 

.0154 

"            " 

I  I  >ecagram 

154.3402 

"            ••       or  ai.out     2  '  .    dram-. 

I  Hectogram 

1.543.4023 

I  Kilogram 

15.424.023 

"               2  ;4      H'-. 

I   Mvriagram 

=:         154,340.2 

'•               20  ;4       " 

435 


BAROMETER  SCALES. 


French. 

u.  s. 

French. 

I 

Millimeters  =    .039  inch 

752 

25.4 

^^    I 

753 

710 

=  27.69   " 

754 

711 

=  27.729  » 

755 

712 

=  27.768  « 

756 

7*3 

=  27.807  " 

757 

7'4 

=  27.846  " 

758 

715 

=  27.885  " 

759 

716 

=  27.924  » 

760 

717 

=  27.963  " 

761 

718 

"      =  28.002  " 

762 

719 

"      -  28.041  " 

763 

720 

=  28.080  " 

764 

721 

=  28.119  " 

765 

722 

=  28.158  " 

766 

723 

=  28.197  " 

767 

724 

=  28.236  " 

768 

725 

=  28.275  " 

769 

726 

=  28.314  " 

770 

727 

-28.353  " 

771 

728 

=  28.392  " 

7/2 

729 

=  28.431  " 

773 

730 

=  28.470  " 

774 

73i 

=  28.509  " 

775 

732 

=  28.548  " 

776 

733 

28.587  " 

777 

734 

=  28.626  « 

778 

735 

=  28.665  " 

779 

736 

=  28.704  " 

780 

737 

=  28.743  « 

781 

738 

28782  " 

782 

739 

-  28.821  " 

783 

740 

=  28.860  " 

784 

74i 

28.899  " 

785 

742 

28.938  " 

786 

743 

28.977  " 

787 

744 

29.016  " 

788 

745 

=  29.055  » 

789 

746 

29.094  " 

790 

747 

29.133  " 

791 

748 

29.172  " 

792 

749 

29.211  " 

793 

750 

29.250  " 

794 

75' 

29.2X9  " 

795 

Millimeters 


u.  s. 

29.328  inch 
29.367  " 
29.406  " 
29.445  " 
29.484  " 


=  29.562 

-  29.601 

-  29.640 

-  29.679 
=  29.718 
=  29.757 

:  29.796 

=  29-835 
=  29.874 

=  29.913 
=  29.952 
=  29.991 

-  30.030 

-  30.069 
3O.I08 

:  30.147 

:  30.186 

:  30.225 

--  30.264 

=  30-303 

30.342 

30.381 

30.420 

:  30.459 

-  30.498 

30-537 
'  30.576 

30-6I5 


3°-693 
30-732 
30.771 
30.810 
30.849 
30.S88 
30.  (,27 
30.966 
3 '  -°°5 


THERMOMETERS. 


COMPARATIYK  SCAI.KS. 

Fahrenheit,                                   Centigrade,  Remain 

Free/ing  Point,    32                                o  o 

"212                           100  So 


To  reduce  degrees  f1'.  to  C.  : — 

(K.  —  32)     •  =  C.  e.g.,  (212°  F  —32)  ioo»  C. 

To  reduce  ( '.  to  /.  .• — 

(C  -   *)  +  32  =  F.,^.(ioo°C  -+-    *)  +  32  =  212°  F. 


To  reduce  F.  to  R.  : — - 

(F  -  32)  X   *    ==   1-,  '•&,  (212°  F.  -  32j   ..  =  .So°  R 


To  reduce  K.  to  C.  :— 

R.  -4-    4    —  C,  c-.,,.,  32°  R.  -r-          =  40°  C. 


457 


CJ 
LJU 

U- 

^ 

Q 


LU 
I 

H 


O  >> 

45  minutes. 

o 

O 

O 

o 

LT) 

0 

°-5        ?         & 

H 

3° 

C 

V 

C 
V 

F 

Q 

o  o. 
Z 

o 

o 
M 

o 
O 
N 

0 

O 

O 
M 

Not  kno 

y 

OH 

V 

o 

Z 

_ 

o 
O 

<D 

a, 

X 

u 

o 

<•         ~ 

fa        fa        fa 

o        o        o 
r^.      o       w> 

MM         N 

|| 

o  n 
o.  = 

cH 

fa 
O 

O 

\O 

x  « 

3 

- 

o  « 

E 

0 

o 

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0 

0 

o 

o 

O 

O 

o 

0       C 

000 

H  5 

^ 

u> 
.5  ti 

M 
X 

r- 

fa 

0 

O 

fa 
o 

OO 

fa 
o 

°0 

CO 

0^ 

^ 
So 

fa 

o 

fa 

o 

fa 

0 

fa 

o 

fa    fa 

0            0 

O       CO 

fa       fa       fa 

0           00 

ro      vO        O 

1 

Z 

In  Spore  Stage  ; 
'lemperature. 

o 

M 

ri 

C 

o 

a 

IM 
3 

< 

• 

a 

5 

»_ 

X 

^ 

S 

S         uf        3 

>F  URC.ANIS 

3 

c' 

* 

• 

'53 
"3 

c. 

1 

=        1        .1 
rt        rt       'o 

•J 

a       ^        ^ 


S     .=      —   i  .£      '55 


.3     !  •-        E.        rt       —         O 


43« 


A,  JL,  JL,  U,  it, 


fO      >o     00    '    r-       i- 


•*r.        O       M        M       ri 

ro        -t        —         M         — 


459 


SPECIFICATIONS  IN  BLANK.* 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  SITE,  SUB-DRAINS,  MADE  ELEVATION. 


Excavations, 
Mason  work, 
Damp-proof  course, 


Beam  filling. 


Coloring  brick  work, 

Face  brick, 

Mortar, 

Tiling, 

Hearths, 

Concrete  or  cemented  floors, 

Floor  drains, 


Chimney  tops, 
Cap  stones, 
Sills, 
Copings, 


Foundations — stone  and  brick, 
Foundation  straps, 
Footings. 

HOLLOW  WALLS. 

Protecting  drain, 
Chimney. 

BRICK  WORK. 

Terra  cotta  pipes,  laying,  etc., 

Iron — iron  ties, 

Hollow  walls, 

Inside  arches, 

Bond, 

Center  arches, 

Brick  floors. 

STONE  WORK. 

Carving, 
Stone  hearths, 
Pointing  mortar, 
Drips, 
Stone  lintels. 


PLASTERING. 

Lath  and  plaster,  wire  lathing,  Papering, 

Walls,  sand,  and  hard  finish,  Lime, 

Cornices,  interior,  centers,  etc. 


Timber,  si/.e,  quality, 

I  leaders, 

Crowning  and  bridging, 

Floor, 

Ceiling,  beams,  and  rafters, 

Hoarding, 


CARPENTER'S  WORK. 

Floors,  double  and  single, 

Tiling, 

Windows,  frames,  sashes,  and  doors, 

Transoms, 

Hardware — door  knobs,  locks,  etc., 

Mantels,  picture  mouldings,  and  stair  rails, 


*  In  contracting  with  an  architect  or  builder  for  the  construction  of  a  building  for 
dwelling,  scln»»l,  hospital  or  other  purposes,  the  appended  list  is  believed  to  cover  all 
the  important  subjects  which  should  be  settled  before  construction  i.s  begun. 

440 


SJ'KCIFICATIONS    IN    IH.ANK.  44 1 

Saddles,  \Yainscoting  and  stairs, 

Partitions,  Vegetable-cellar  shelves. 

Furring,  Coal  Inns, 

Wooden  ceilings,  Closets,  wardrobes,  etc. 

PLUMBING. 

Water-closets  and  cisterns,  Kitchen  sinks,  slop  sinks,  and  laundry  tubs, 

Hath  tubs  and  wash  ba-ins,  Spiggols,  kinds  and  finish. 

Sewage  system,  Speaking  lubes  and  Ixrll.v 

(las  fitting. 

PAINTING. 

Finishing,  oil  or  hard  wood. 

GLASS. 

Plain,  plate,  and  stained,  Puttied  or  leaded. 

VENTILATION. 

System  to  be  used  and  quantity  of  air  to  be  supplied. 

HEATING. 

Method  and  application.  Range,  stoves  and  furnaces. 

Steam  or  hot-water  system. 

ROOFING. 

Roof  materials,  Roof  gutters,  c<>r.duit>,  etc. 


INDEX. 


A. 


Abbe  condenser,  400 
Acarus  scabiei,  52 
Achorion  schonleinii,  35 
Actinomyces  in  meat,  detection  of,  427 
Actinomycosis,  35,  40,  135 

prevention  of.  59 

Acute  catarrhal  conditions    affecting  the 
gastrointestinal  mucous  membrane,  mi- 
crobic  cause  of,  41 
Aerobic,  40 
Aeroscope,  Hesse's,  235 

simple  form  of,  236 

Age  as  a  predisposing  cause  of  disease,  29 
Agents  to  be  used  for  disinfection,  66 
Ague,  see  malaria 
Air,  213 

albuminoid  ammonia  in,  233,  312 
aqueous  vapor  in,  244 
amount  of  to  be  supplied  in  ventila- 
tion, 310  and  313 

as  a  cause  of  parasitic  diseases,  222 
as  a  cause  of  chemical  toxemia,  222 
as  an  accessory  or  predisposing  ele- 
ment in  the  production  of  disease, 
223 

as  a  cause  of  artisans'  phthisis,  222 
biologic  examination,  234 
carbon  monoxid  in,  221 
Carburetted  hydrogen  in,  221 
carbon  bisulphid  in,  221 
carbon  dioxid  in,  220 
contamination  by  trades,  217 
contaminated    from     made    ground, 

219 
disease  attributable  to  impurities  in, 

221 

examination,  ammonia,  226 

aqueous  vapor,  231 
carlion  dioxid,  227 
carbon  monoxid,  226 
carbon    bisulphid,   2}i 
carburetted     hydrogen, 

23° 

collection    of  samples, 

224 
organic  matter,  232 


Air  examination,  o/one,  230 

sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

230 

suspended  matter,   233 
free  ammonia  in,  253 
hydrogen  sulphid  in,  221 
impurities,  and  their  source,  213 
maximum  of  impurity  in,  312 
organic  matter  in,  214 
of  marshes,  218 
products  of  combustion  in,  216 
tester,  Prof.  XYolpert's,  228 
Albuminates,  107 
Albuminoids,  107, 
Alcoholic  beverages,  173 
Alcohol,  food  value  of,  174 
Ale,  175 

Allen's  closet,  353 
Ameba  coli  in  feces,  42} 
Ammonia  in  air,  test  for,  226 
Ammonium  compounds  in  water,  203 
Anaerobic  bacteria,  40 

cultivation  of,  410 
Analysis  of  air,  224 
Anemometer,  dynamic,  336 

corrections  for,  2,6 

for    measuring    ventilating 

currents,  330 
measuring  the  velocity 

of  wind,  2^5 
Robinson's  255 
static,  336 

Aneroid  barometer,  250 
Angle  berries,  142 
Animal  foods,  107 

parasites,  40 

in  blood,  419 
Anthracoid  diseases,  138 
Anthrax,  41 

bacillus  of,  41 

in  meat,  42S 
forms  of  in  animals.  I  " 
po>t  mortem  appearances  in,  137 
prevention  ot.  50 
symptoms  ot,   I  37 
Antill's  trap>.  354 
Anti-optics,  i"-) 
Aqueoii>  vapor  in  air,  2  ;i,  244 


445 


444 


INDEX. 


Arkansas,  climate  of,  266 
Arsenic  in  water,  test  for,  206 
air,  234 
wall  paper,  223 

papers,  test  for,  234 
Artesian  wells,  187 
Artificial  lights,  340 
Artisans'  phthisis  due   to  air   impurities, 

222 

Ascaris  lumbricoides,  50 
Ascococci,  38 
Aspergillus,  35 
Automatic  flush  tanks,  348 

regulators  for    heating   appli- 
ances, 333 


B. 

Bacilli,  39 

propagation  by  fission,  39 

spore  formation,  39 
Bacillus  anthracis,  41 

in  blood,  417 
leprre,  44 

staining  of,  431 
mallei,  43 

in  the  blood,  418 

meat,  428 

inoculation       experiment, 
essential     to    diagnosis 

415 

of  rhinoscleroma,  45 
syphilis,  46 

staining  of,  433 
tuberculosis,  47 

in  blood,  418 
staining  of,  413 
tetani,  46 

staining  of,  432 
typhosus,  47 

in   blood,  418 
Back  to  back  houses,  379 
Bacteria,  34 

classification  of,  34 
production  of  disease  by,  40 
Bacteriologic  technic,  404 
Bacteriology,  34 
Baldness,  cause  of,  104 
Baltimore  heaters,  384 
Bar  IlarlKir,  climate  of,  276 
Barley,  165 

Barometer,  adjusting  and  reading  of,  246 
aneroid,  250 

comparative  scales  of,  436 
corrections,  241; 
mercurial,  245 
Basement,  306 
Bathing,  92 

best  forms   of,  <)2 
for  adults,  91 


Bathing  of  children,  90 

of  infants,  85 
Baths,  357 
Bath  rooms,  inspection  of,  384 

-tub  trap,  355 
Beans,  166 
Beef,  129 
Beer,  175 

composition  of,  176 
Beets,  164 

Beekman  salutary  system,  344 
Bedding,  disinfection  of,  79 
Beiming  patent  milk  test,  1 15 
Biologic  examination  of  air,  234 
of  soil,  290 
of  water,  evidence 
to    be    adduced, 
207 
Black  Death,  47 

quarter,   138 

tongue,  microbic  cause  of,  42 
Blank  specifications,  440 
Blastomycetes,  35 

Blood,  proximate  composition  of,  106 
Blown  joints,  362 
Bored  wells,  187 
Bothriocephalus  latus,  52 

in  feces,  425 
Botulism,  allantiasis,  158 
Braxy,  153 

Bromin  as  a  disinfectant,  69 
Bronchitis,  acute,  microbic  cause,  41 
Bubonic  plague,  47 
Buckwheat,  165 
Buildings,  see  Habitations 
Butter,  1 17 

adulteration  of,  1 18 
composition  of,  11 8 
examination  of,  120 
estimation  of  volatile  acids,  alter- 
nate method,  125 
estimation  of  volatile  acids,  Leff- 

man  and   Beam  method,  125 
estimation  of  volatile  acids,  method 
of   the    Association    of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists,  121 
fat  composition  of,  119 
imitation,  120 
substitutes,  1 19 

objections  to,  120 
value  of,  I  20 
Buttermilk,  117 

C. 

Cabbage,  if>4 
Caisson  disease,  33 
California,  climate  of,  261 
Cancer,  parasitic  cause  of,  49 
Cancrmn  oris,  microbic  cause  of,  46 
Carbohydrates,  107 


1NDKX. 


445 


Carbolic  acid  as  a  disinfectant,  69 

vapor  as  a  disinfectant,  71 
Carbon  hisulphid  in   air,  231 

dioxiil  in  air,  220,  227 
monoxid  in  air,  221,  226 
Carbureted  hydrogen  in  air,  230 
('arm in  stain,  4  1 1 
Carrols,  162 

Cattle,  inspection  of,   see    Meat    Inspec- 
tion 

measles  of,  1 5  i 

method  of  detci mining  age,  I  51 
plague,  134 
Cellar,  306 

drains,  construction  of,  371 
inspect  ion  of,  3X2 
Cement,  298 

new  process  of  hardening,  298 
roofs,  305 

Cercomonas  intcstinalis  in  feces,  424 
Cereals,  164 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  microbic  cause 
of,  41 

prevention  of, 

59 
Cesspools,  376 

regulations  governing  construc- 
tion of,  37  i 
Cheese,  126 

quality  and  adulteration,  126 
Chemical  disinfectants,  67 

products  ol   bacteria,  40 
toxemia  due  to  air  impurities, 

222 

Chicken-pox,  microbic  cause  of,  41 

prevention  of,  59 
Chickens,  diphtheria  in,  160 
Chicory  in  cotiee,  173 
Childhood,  the  diet  of.  88 
Chlorid  of  /.inc  as  a  disinfectant,  67 
Chlorids  in  water,  202 
Chlorin  as  a  disinfectant,  70 

as  an  indication  of  water  pollu- 
tion, 202 

how  generated,  70 
Chlorinated  lime  as  a  disinfectant,  67 

objections  to,  68 
Cholera;  Asiatic,  prevention  of,  59 

microbic  cause  of,  41 
spirillum  in  feces,  422 
Chromogenic  bacteria,  40 
Cirrus  clouds.  256 
Cisterns  for  water  storage,  186 

in  house,  dangers  of,  380 
City  regulations  for  plumbing,  365 
Climate,  20,  237 

influence  on  race,  239 
sex,  239 

relation  to  health,  238 
Climatologic  observations,  241 


Clothing,  97 

Chemical  examination  of  mate- 
rials used,  <i~ 
disinflation  i.|,  ~* 

of  cliildrrli,  S7 
•  if  infant'.,  S  ; 
materials  used,  07 
microscopic     elimination      of 

material^  used,  1,7 
to  protect  from  told,  101 
heat,  loi 
•  •'lots,  I"I 
winds,  lot 
Clouds,  256 
Cocci,  36 

naming  by  number,   \>> 

arrangement,  38 

Coccidium  perforans  iti  Icce.s,  424 
Cotiee,  172 

adulteration  of,  i  73 
Cu-nurus  cerebr.di.s,  140 
Cold  as  a  disinfectant,  72 
Concrete,  298 

Condensed  and  concentrated  f<x>ds,  168 
Condensers  for  microscopes,  400 
Conduct  ion  of  heat,  314 
Connection  of  lead  and  iron  pipe*,  369 
Connective      tissue    disease-,     found      in 

meat.  155 

Conservancy  methods  of  handling  sew- 
^  age,  376 
Consumption,  47 

prevention  of,  63 
Contact  thermometer,  75,  333 
Contagion,  33 

Contagious  diseases  in  childhood,  86 
Convection  of  heat,  314 
Copper-bit  joint,  301 

in  water,  test  for,  207 
tiles  for  roofs,  30^ 

Corrosive  sublimate  as  a  disinfectant.  07 
strength   to    be    used 
for  disinfection,  68 
Corset,  102 
Cotton,  98,  99 

Counting  colonies  of  bacteria,  410 
Cover  glasses  for  microscopic  work,  403 
Creamometer,  1 1 5 
Cremation,  306 
Croup,  microbic  cau^e  of,  42 

prevention  of.  t>o 
Croupous    pneumonia,    staining    ot     the 

coccus  of,  432 
Cubic  space,  amount  required  in  sleeping 

apartments,  383 
Cultivation  of  anaerobes,  410 
Culture  media,  lluid.  405 

gelatin,  407 

gelatin  ag.ir-.'.g.ir.  4117 

meat  infusion,  405 


446  INDEX. 


Culture  media,  potatoes  as,  406 

solid,  406 

Cumulus  clouds,  256 
Customs,  29 
Cycling  for  exercise,  91 
Cysticercus  bovis,  151 

cellulose,  52,  150 

D. 

Damp-proof  course,  or  air  course  in  walls, 

301 

of  slate,  303 

Dangers  arising  from  deficient  water  sup- 
ply, 190 
Dead,  disposal  of,  395 

meat,  inspection  of,  154 
Dececo  water  closet,  344 
Dengue,  microbic  cause  of,  42 

prevention  of,  60 
Dentition,  85 
Deodorants,  66,  76 
Desmo-bacteria,  38 
Dew  point,  244 

Diarrhea  due  to  impure  water,  192 
Diathesis  as  a  cause  of  disease,  28 
Diet,  177 

calculation  of  quantity,  182 
Diphtheria,  microbic  cause  of,  42 

of  pigeons  and  chickens,  160 
prevention  of,  60 
Diplococcus,  37 
Direct-indirect  heating,  326 

radiation,  315 
Direct  invasion,  40 

radiation,  314 

Disease,  exciting  causes  of,  32 
the  causes  of,  27 
the  prevention  of,  53 
Diseases  attributable  to  atmospheric  im- 
purities, 221 

due  to  impure  water,  192 

impurities  in  the  soil,  285 
found  in  meat  132 
of  the  mucous  membrane  due  to 

soil,  286 
peculiar    to  climatic  conditions, 

238 
Disinfectants,  66 

chemical,  67 
physiological,  67 
thermal,  71 

Disinfection  by  heat,  technic  of,  75 
of  ambulances,  79 
of  a  patient,  "6 
of  bed  clothing,  79 
of  carpels,  79 
of  carriages,  79 
of  clothing,  78 
of  curtains,  79 


Disinfection  of  excreta,  79 
of  furniture,  79 
of  floors,  79 
of  the  hands,  77 
of  hospitals,  79 
of  mails,  79 
of  railway  cars,  79 
of  the  dead,  So 
of  ships,  79 
of  the  sick,  80 
of    surgical    instruments,  78 
of  walls,  79 
Disposal  of  the  dead,  395 

by  burial,  396 
cremation,  395 

in    large    numbers, 

397 

Disruption  of  sewage,  393 
Dochmius  duodenalis,  51 
Domestic  filtration  of  water,  196 
Dowling  incinerator,  389 
Draft  regulators,  }i6 
Drain  pipes,  size  necessary,  387 
Drains,  363 

inspection  of,  380 
location  of  breaks  in,  381 
Dry  heat  as  a  disinfectant,  72 
D-traps,  354 
Duckett's  closet,  352 
Dust  in  air,  233 
Dwellings,  see  Habitations. 

free  space  about,  379 
inspection  of,  379 
Dysentery,  epidemic,  microbic    cause  of, 

42 
prevention  of,  60 


E. 

Ear,  care  of,  94 

Earth-burial,  see  Disposal  of  the  dead. 

Echinococcus,  52 

veterinorum,  152 
Effects  of  diminished  barometric  pressure, 

.   33 

increased    barometric    pressure, 

33 

Effluents,  sewage,  392 
Eggs,  127 

selection  of,  127 
Electrolysis  of  sewage,  393 
Emanations  from  made  ground,  219 
Emphysema  infectiosum,  138 

pathology     o  f, 

138 
symptoms    o  f, 

138 

]>  os  t  -mortem, 
recognition  of, 


INDKX. 


447 


Enclosed  closets,  542 
Endocarditis,  microbic  cause  of,  42 
Engle  cremator,  389 
English  or  block  bond,  300 
Knteric  fever,  see  Fever,  typhoid 
Environment  as  a  cause  of  disease,  28 
Epidemic  parotitis,  microbic  cause  of,  44 

prevention  of,  62 
pleuro-pneumonia,  133 
Erysipelas  fever,  microbic  cause  of,  42 
microbic  cause  of,  42 
prevention  of,  61 
staining  of    the   streptococcus 

of,  433 
Erysiphe,  35 

Erythrasma,  microbic  cause  of,  43 
Estimation  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere, 

224 

Eudiometry,  224 
Eustrongylus  gigas,  51 
Evaporated  foods,  167 
Evaporometer,  257 
Examination  of  feces,  421 
milk,  1 1 1 
soil,  286 
sputum,  416 
Exercise  in  childhood,  86 

for  adults,  91 

Exhaust  system  of  heating,  331 
Eyes,  care  of  the,  93 


F. 


Facultative  bacteria,  40 
Farcy,  147 

acute,  symptoms  of,  148 
chronic,  symptoms  of,  148 
microbic  cause  of.  43 
P'ats  (hydrocarbons),  107 
Favus,  microbic  cause  of,  4^ 
Feet,  care  of,  95 
Feser's  lactoscope,  113 
Fever,  enteric,  47 

bacillus  of.  47 
epidemic  erysipelatous,  prevention 

of,  6 1 

Malta,  prevention  of,  61 
rheumatic,  microbic  cause  of,  45 
relapsing,  microbic  cause  of,  45 

prevention  of,  62 
scarlet,  microbic  cause  of,  45 

prevention  of,  62 
Texas,  130 
typhoid,  microbic  cause  of,  47 

prevention  of.  o  } 
typhus,  microbic  cause  of,  4S 

prevention  of,  64 
yellow,  prevention  of.  65 


Filaria  sanguinis  liornims,  ^i 

in     the     blood, 

421 

Filari.e  forms  of,  51 
Filter,  sand,  1^5 

I'asleur-(  'hnmbcrland,  \<t~ 
tourists',  i<jS 
Filters,  domestic,  196 

essentials  of,  197 
for  public  supply,  i<>4 
Filth  diseases,  379 
Filtration  of  water,  194 

of  sewage,  392 
Fire  damp,  230 
Fireplaces,  315 

floor- fed,  315 
fuel  for,  317 
for    natural  gas,  318 
heat  production  of,  335 
objections  to,  317 
rifle-back,  315 
water-back,  "517 
with  draft  regulators,  310 
Fire-plugs,  377 

proof  buildings,  297 
Fish,  161 

inspection  of,  161 
Fission  fungi,  36 
Flea,  varieties  of,  53 
Flemish  bond,  300 
Floor-fed  Hues,  315 
Fluid  culture  media,  405 
Fluke,  149 
Flukes,  49 

Flushing  pipe,  "  perfection,"  352 
of  streets,  377 
water-closets    with    slop    water, 

352 

Flush-tanks,  automatic,  348 

and  cisterns,  348 
non-automatic,  350 
quantity  of  water  to  be  dis- 
charged, 370 
with  time  valve,  351 
Food,  105 

administration  of,  17') 
and  work,  I  82 
as  determined  by  age.  177 
influence  of  appetite  on,  170 
climate  on.  i~>< 
occupation  on,  I  78 
sex  on.  I  7s* 

influenced  by  i  iiosvncrasy.  i8j 
source  anil   quantity  of,  100 
tables,  184 

Foods,  condensed  and  concentrated,  K)S 
cooking  of,  I  80 
digi-<tii>iliiy  of".  IM 
preserved,  17° 
quantity  required.  182 


448 


INDEX. 


Foods,  refrigerated,  170 

sterilized,  170 

Foot  and  mouth  disease,  134 
Forced  ventilation,  334 
Fowls  used  for  food,  159 
Fractional  plating,  410 
Fruits,  166 

dried,  167 

selection  of,  167 

Fryer's  incinerating  furnace,  388 
Function  as  a  predisposing  cause  of  dis- 
ease, 29 

Fungus  foot,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
Furnace,  location  and  setting  of,  322 
Furnaces,  321 

heat  production  of,  335 
method  by   which  they  heat, 

321 
registers  for,  323 


G. 

Game,  159 

Gangrenous  stomatitis,  prevention  of,  62 

Garbage,  Dowling  incinerator,  389 

incineration  of,  388 
Garget,  142 

Gas  fixtures,  ventilating,  340 
Georgia,  climate  of,  260 
Germs,  34 
Germicides,  chemical,  67 

physiological,  67 
thermal,  71 
Gid,  149 

Glaisher's  Table,  No.  I,  231 
2,  232 
Glanders,  147 

acute,  symptoms  of,  148 
cause  of,  43 

chronic,  symptoms  of,  148 
prevention  of,  61 
Glass  building  blocks,  297 
pipe  plumbing,  359 
pipes  for  plumbing,  advantages  of, 

360 
objections    to, 

360 
Goiter,  production   of,   by  impure   water, 

193 

Gonococci,  staining  of,  433 
Gonococcus,  43 

Gonorrhea,  microbic  cause  of,  43 
Gram's  method  of  staining,  412 
Grapes,  142 

Graveyards,  selection  of  site,  396 
Ground  air,  examination  of,  290 

humidity.  279 

water,  280 
Gulley  trap,  354 
Gutters,  377 


H. 

Habit,  as  a  cause  of  disease,  28 
Habitations,  292 

dry  soil  as  a  site,  292 
fire-proof,  297 
foundation  of,  299 
height  of,  299 
inspection  of,  379 
materials    for    construction, 

294 
methods   for    securing    dry 

walls,  301 
of  brick,  294 
of  stone,  295 
of  wood,  294 
selecting  the  ground  or  site, 

292 

ventilation  of,  310 
Hair,  care  of,  94 
Halogens     as  disinfectants,     see    lodin, 

Bromin  or  Chlorin, 
Handling  of  the   dead   from  contagious 

diseases,  So 

Hanover,  climate  of,  277 
Hardness  of  water,  191 
Health,  the  maintenance  of,  25 
Heat,  29 

as  a  disinfectant,  72 
calculation    of     radiating     surface 
from  steam   or  hot  water  radia- 
tors, 335 

calulntion    of    thermal    units    de- 
manded, 335 
in  soil,  289 

temperature  necessary  for  disinfec- 
tion, 75 
under  high  tension  or  pressure  as  a 

disinfectant,  74 
Heaters,  inspection  of,  384 
Heating,  309,  314 

automatic  regulation  of,  333 
by  conduction,  314 
by  convection,  314 
by  exhaust  steam,  325 
by  fireplaces,  315 
by  furnaces,  321 
by  high  velocity  currents,  334 
by  radiation,  314 
by  steam  or  hot  water,  324 
by  stoves,  319 

calculations  of  heat  supply,  334 
Ilelminthiasis,  31 
Hematozoun  of  acyclical  ague  in  blood, 

420 
quartan    ague   in  blood, 

420 
tertian    ague    in    blood, 

419 
Hesse's  aeroscope,  235 


IN'DKX. 


449 


Histologic  stains,  41 1 
House,  149 

Horse-flesh,  recognition  of  in   meat    in- 
spection, 156 

Hospitals,    disinfection  of,  see  Disinfec- 
tion of  rooms,  etc 
Hot-air  furnaces,  321 

sterilizer,  72 
House,  cubic    space    for     individuals    in 

sleeping  rooms,  38} 
drainage,  inspection  of,  381 
drains,  fresh  air  inlet,  366 
testing  of,  381 
trapping  of,  366 
regulations  governing  their 

const  ruction,  366 
Humidity,  as  a  cause  of  disease,  3> 

deficient,    how    overcome    in 

heating,  338 

importance  in  ventilation,  311 
in  air,  how  ascertained,  244 
relative,  244 
Hydatid  cysts  in  meat,  428 

disease.  52 
Hydrocarbons,  107 
Hydrophobia,  microbic  cause  of,  45 
Hygiene  of  the  eyes  in  childhood,  90 
Hygrometer,  244 
Hygrophant,  337 
Hypomycetes,  35 
Hypsometer  251 


I. 


Illinois,  climate  of,  263 
Immunity  acquired,  28 

induced,  28,  66 
inherited,  28 

"Improved  Sypho"  closet,  345 
Impure  water  supply,  191 
Impurities  in  air  and  their  source,  213 
Incinerating  furnace,  Fryer's,  388 
Incineration  of  garbage,  388 
Incubation  of  diseases,  57  and  59 
Indirect  heating  by  means  of  tloor  heat- 
ers or  radiators,  327 
with   tloor  radiator   and 

wall  register,  328 
radiation,  314  and  329 

automatic    control    of, 

33.5 

exhaust  system,  331 
plenum  system,  333 
Infant  clothing,  83 

feeding  of,  82 
hygiene  of,  82 
Infection,  33 

Influenza,  microbiocause  of,  44 
prevention  of,  t>i 


Ingestive  diseases,  51 
Inheritance,  din-cl,  27 

of  tissue,  27 
Inlets  for  frc»li  air,  31') 
Inoculation,  65 

experiment-,  414 
Inspection  of  dead  meat,  154 
of  habitation'-,  371; 
of  house  drainage.   ;Si 
of  houses,  example  of  unsani- 
tary house,  3X5 
of  houses,  open  -pace  around 

house,  385 

of  living  animals,  1 30 
of  |>oultry,  I  S'j 
Intercepting  traps,  see  Traps 
Intermittent  fever,  see  Malaria 

upward  filtration  of  sewage, 

392 

lodin  as  a  disinfectant,  70 
Iowa,  climate  of,  264 
Iron      drain      pipes,     weight     necessary 

368 
Irrigation  as  a  process  of  sewage  disposal, 

393 

Isolation,  55 


J- 

Jail  fever,  see  Typhus  Fever 
jars  for  transporting  and  preserving  tis- 
sues, etc.,  404 
foints,  blown,  362 

different   kinds    in  plumbing.  361 
Jute,  99 

K. 

Kefir,  177 

Kentucky,  climate  of.  259 

Keratosis  follicularis,  40 

Kidneys,  tuberculosis  of   in  animals,  145 

Kitchen,  307 

dresser,  307 

sink,  357 

Koch's  apparatus  for  biologic  examina- 
tion of  air.  235 
Koumiss,  i  77 

L. 

Lactometers,   1 1 1 

Lactoscope,    1'e-er's,  ri} 

I  .a  (iiippe.  microbic  cau-e  of,  44 

Lakes    as    a    source    of  water    supply  or 

storage,  i8S 

Laundry  titling  and  plumbing,  374 
Lavatories,  357 
Lead  bends  .  »r  traps,  thickness  .  >f.  3"S 

drain   pipe-,  weight   nece>s.»ry,  368 


450 


INDEX. 


Lead  in  water,  test  for,  207 

roofs,  304 

Liebig's  extract  of  meat,  168 
Leprosy  bacilli,  detection  of,  431 

in  sputum,  431 
microbic  cause  of,  44 
prevention  of,  61 
staining  of  bacillus,  431 
Light,  artificial,  340 

best  glass  for  windows,  339 
selection  of,  339 
Lighting,  338 

natural,  338 

Lime,  chlorid  of,  in  disinfection,  67 
in  sewage  purification,  391 
use  of  in  earth  burial,  397 
Linen,  99 

Little  Rock,  climate  of,  266 
Liver  rot,  149 

tuberculosis  of  in  animals,  144 
Lodging-houses,  cubic  air-space  of  rooms, 

383 

London,  sewage  of,  391 
Long-hopper  closets,  342 
Louisiana,  climate  of,  267 
Louse,  varieties  of,  53 
Lumpy  jaw,  135 
Lymphatic  glands,  diseases  of  in  meats, 


M. 

Made  soils,  284 

Madura  foot,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
Magnetic  carbid  of  iron  in  filters,  194 
aria,  examination  of  blood  in,  419 
microbic  cause  of,  44 
parasites,  forms  of,  419 
parasitic  cause  of,  44,  419 
Malarial  soils,  285 
Malignant  pustule,  41 
Malt  liquors,  175 

Malta  Fever,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
Man-holes  for  sewers,  362 
Margatine,  1  19 
Marsh  air,  218 
gas,  230 

Maryland,  climate  of,  269 
Maximum  thermometer?,  242 
Means  for  securing  disinfection,  66 
Measles,  microbic  cause  of,  44 

prevention  of,  6l 
Measly  pork,  150 
Meat,  128 

inspection,  of  living  animal,  130 
Meats  salted,  inspection  of,  157 
pickled,  inspection  of,  157 
to  be  condemned,  153 
Membranous  laryngitis,  prevention  of,  60 
microbic  cause  of, 
42 


Meninges,  tuberculosis  of  in  animals,  145 

Mercuric  chlorid  as  a  disinfectant,  68 

Mercury,  salts  of,  used  in  disinfection,  67 

Merino,  loo 

Merismopedia,  37 

Metallic  poisoning  due  to  impure  water, 

194 
Methods  by  which  ventilation  is  secured, 

3'3 

of  distributing  water,  189 
Metric  system,  435 
Michigan,  climate  of,  257 
Microbacteria,  38 
Microbes,  34 

as  causes  of  diseases,  40 
in  air,  234 
in  soil,  290 
in  water,  207 
Micrococci,  36 
Micrococcus  cereus  albus,  46 
flavus,  46 
pyogenes  albus,  46 

aureus,  46 
citreus,  46 
tetragonus,  37 
MicroSragnisms,  34 
Microscopes,  398 

condensers  for,  400 
objectives  for,  401 

Microscopic  examination  of  blood,  416 
meats,  426 
water,  209 

Microsporon  furfur,  35,47 
Midden  system  of  sewage  disposal,  376 
Milk,  107 

absorption  of  foul  odors,  in 
adulteration,  109 

as  a  cause  of  bacterial  diseases,  no 
as  a  cause  of    contagious  diseases 

no 

coloring  in,  1 17 
composition  of,  108 
condensed,  168 
contamination,  sources  of,  III 
examination,  1 1 1 
evaporated,   168 
Pasteurized,  109 
per  cent,  of  cream,  1 13 
percentage  of  total  solids,  1 12 
predigestion  of,   108 
quantity  demanded,  loS 
souring  and  curdling  of,  I  lo 
sterili/.ed,  109 

Mines,  carburetted  hydrogen  in,  230 
Minimum  thermometers,  242, 
Minnesota,  climate  of,  25.S 
Mississippi,  climate  of,  258 
Modified  smallpox, prevention  of,  (>.\ 
Moisture,  quantity  of   in   the  heated  air, 
338 


INDKX. 


45' 


Moist  heat  as  a  disinfectant,  73 

Monococcus,  36 

Moule's  self  acting  closet,  377 

system  of  excreta  removal,  377 
Mumps,  microbic  cause  of,  44 

prevention  of,  62 

Muscles  in  meat,  diseases  found  in,  156 
Mussels,  161 
Mutton    129 
Mycoderma  aceti,  36 
Mycetoma,  microbic  cause  of,  44 


N. 

Nails,  care  of,  95 

Nebraska,  climate  of,  262 

Nematoda,  50 

Nessler's  reagent,  203 

New  England  States,  climate  of,  275 

New  Haven,  climate  of,  276 

New  Jersey,  climate  of,  269 

New  Mexico,  climate  of,  270 

New  York,  climate  of,  270 

Nevada,  climate  of,  263 

Nimbus  clouds,  256 

Nitrogen  in  air,  213 

Nitrogenous  compounds  as  foods,  107 

Nitrous  acid  as  a  disinfectant,  71 

Noma,  microbic  cause  of,  46 

prevention  of,  62 
Non-automatic  flush  tanks,  350 

-pathogenic  micro-organisms,  39 
North  Carolina,  climate  of,  262 
Dakota,  climate  of,  265 
Noxious  trades,  217 
Nuisances,  381 


O. 

Oats,  165 

Obligate,  as  applied  to  bacteria,  40 
Objectionably  constructed  clothing,  IOI 
Objections  to  open  fireplaces,  317 
Objectives  for  microscopes,  401 
Occupation,  as   a  predisposing    factor  in 

the  induction  of  disease,  30 
Odors  in  houses,  385 
Offensive  trades,  217 
( iTdiutn  lactis,  35 

tuckcri.  }-; 
Oklahoma  City,  altitude,  266 

climate  of,  265 
Open  fireplaces,  ^15 

.-paces  around  houses,  386 
Organic  matter  in  air,  214 

test  for,  232 
soil,  2  So 
water,  202 
Oriental  plague,  microbic  cause  of,  47 


Oriental  plague*,  prevention  of,  65 
Oxyuri*  vermiciil.iri-.,  50 
Oysters,   161 
()«)iie  in  air,  2}c 


P. 


Panel's  disease  of  the  nipple,  40 
Tail  system  of  sewage  diiposal.  376 
1'an  closets,  34  I 

how  remedied,  542 
I'aramecium  coli  in  feces,  424 
Parasitic  arnclmida,  52 

diseases   due   to  air    impurities, 
222 

insects,  53 

stomatitis,  prevention  of,  62 
I'asteur-Chamberland  filter,  197 
I'asteuri/ed  milk,  83 
Pathogenic  microorganisms,  39 
Peas,  1 66 

Pembina,  climate  of,  265 
Penicillium  glaucum,  35 
Pennsylvania,  climate  of,  271 
Percolation,  253 

gauge,  253 

"  Perfection  "  flushing  pipe,  352 
Perlsucht,  142 
Petri  dish,  409 
Phagocytosis,  67 
Phthisis,  see  Tuberculosis 

of  sheep,  149 

Picrocarmin  stain,  Kanvier's,  412 
Pickled  meats,  157 
Pig  typhoid,  see  Anthracoid  Diseases 
Pigeons,  diphtheria  in,  160 
Pigs,  measles  of,  150 
Pmta  disease,  miciob'c  cause  of,  43 
Pipes,  form-  and  kinds  of,  3^8 
Plating,  4oS 

by  Koch's  method,  409 

by  Petri's  method,  409 
Plenum  system  of  heating,  ^  , } 
Pleurisy,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
Pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle,  I  ;; 
Plumbing,  connections,  55* 
joints,  361 . 

regulations  governing,  V'5 
Pneumonia,  croupous,  microbic  c.ui-e  of, 

4-4 

Pork,  i  20 
Porter,  175 
Potatoes,  no 

c  'in:  .os'.ti  m  ol.  I'. 3 
.-election  of.  I  o  ; 
Poultry,  inspection   ol".  1 5>) 
Precipitation  as  a  IT.  >ces-  of  sewage  puri- 

ticati.  >n,  3'j  I 
rainf.il!.  etc.,  -  ;  ; 


452 


INDEX. 


Predisposing  causes  of  disease,  29 
Preserved  foods,  170 
Previous  attacks  of  disease,  29 
Prevention  of  diseases  due  to  inheritance, 

29 
Privy  vaults,  construction  of,  371 

location  of,  371 

system  of  sewage  disposal,  376 
Products  of  combustion  in  air,  216 
Protection    of     walls     during     building, 

298 

Proteids,  107 
Psychronieter,  244 
Ptomaines,  48 

poisoning  by,  48 

Purification  of  sewage,  see  Sewage 
of  soils,  282 
of  water,  194 

Pyemia.  microbic  cause  of,  45 
Pyogenic  bacteria,  40 


Q- 

Quarantine,  55 

objections  to,  57 

R. 

Rabies,  microbic  cause  of,  45 

Race  as  a  predisposing  cause  of  disease, 

29 
Radiation,  direct,  314 

direct-indirect,  315 
indirect,  314 

methods  of  applying, 

329 

of  heat,  314 
Radiators  for  steam  and  hot  water  heat- 

i»K.  325 
Rain  fall,  253 

gauge,  253 

water,  185 
Rauchbrand,  139 
Ray  fungus,  40 
Receiving  vaults,  396 
Refrigerated  foods,  170 
Registers,  si/.e  and  arrangement  of,  323 
Relative  humidity,  244 
Relapsing    fever,  cause  of,  45 

prevention  of,  62 

Relation  of  climate  to  health,  238 
Reservoirs,  distributing,  189 

subsiding,  188 
Rifle-back  flues,  315 
Rliitioscleroiua,  432 

bacillus  of,  45 
Rice,  165 

Ringworm,  microbic  cause  of,  45 
Risers  of  stairs,  309 


River  water,  186 
Rhabdonema  intestinale,  51 
Rheumatism,    acute,    microbic    cause   of 

45 

Roads,  377 

Robinson  anemometer,  255 
Rock  fever,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
Roof  drains,  305 
Roofing  materials,  303 
Rooms,  living,  inspection  of,  382 
Rot  in  sheep,  149 
Rubber,  101 

Rubeola,  microbic  cause  of,  44 
prevention  of,  61 


S. 


Saccharomycetes,  35 

mycoderma,  36 
Salted  meat,  157 
Salt  Lake  City,  climate  of,  268 
Sanitary  inspection  of  dwellings,  379 
Sapremia,  microbic  cause  of,  45 
Saprophytes,  40 
Sarcina,  37 

Sausage  poisoning,  158 
Scabies,  430 

parasite  of,  53 
Scarlatina,  see  next 
Scarlet  fever,  miciobic  cause  of,  45 

prevention  of,  62 
School  for  children,  88 
School-life  of  children,  89 
Schizomycetes,  36 

subdivisions  of,  36 
Season,  influence  on  deatii-rate,  240 
Sedimentation  of  sewage,  391 
Segregation,  55 

Self  acting  closet,  Moule's,  377 
Septicemia,  microbic  cause  of,  45 
Sewage,  388 

conservancy,  methods  of  hand 
ling,  376 

danger  of  in  streams,  389 

disruption  of,  393 

electrolysis  of,  393 

filtration  of,  392 

final  disposition  of,  389 

in  made  ground, 388 

irrigation  of,  392 

materials    of  which    it    is  com- 
posed, 388 

midden  or  privy  system,  376 

pail  system,  376 

pollution  of  rivers  by,  390 

precipitation  of,  391 

purification  of,  391 

sedimentation  of,  391 

system,  ^72 


INUKX. 


453 


Sewage  system  in  London,  301 

of  house,  plans   for,  372 
Shone'shydro-pneumatic, 

375 

Sewer-gas  and  back-water  trap,  ^54 

Sewers,  362 

gradient  of,  364 
sewage  system,  364 
surface  water  s)stem,  304 

Sex  as  a  predisposing  factor  in  the  induc- 
tion of  disease,  29 

Sexual  hygiene,  95 

Shoddy,  99 

Shoes,  faulty  construction  of,  105 

Shone's  hydro-pneumatic  sewage  system, 

375 

Ships,  disinfection  of,  79 
Silk,  99 
Sinks,  356 

plumbing  for,  357 
Siphon  traps,  354 
Sites  for  habitation*,  292 
Skin  diseases,  detection  of  bacteria  in,  429 

of  animals  for  clothing,  loo 
Slate  roofs,  304 
Sleep  during  infancy,  85 
Slides  for  microscopic  work,  403 
Slops,  see  Garbage 
Sludge,  391 
Smallpox  in  sheep,  153 

microbic  cause  of,  48 
prevention  of,  64 
Soil  air,  282 

ammonia  in,  282 

as  a  cause  of  diseases  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  286 

as  a  cause  of  malaria,  285 

biologic  examination  of,  290 

carbon  dioxid  in,  282 

chemical  composition  of,  287 

diseases  due  to  impurities  in,  285 

drainage  of,  282 

examination,  286 

heat  in,  289 

modified  by  vegetation,  280 

pathogenic  bacteria  in,  281 

purification  of,  282 

stratum  of  humidity,  279 

of  saturation  of,  279 
Soil-pipe,  connections  with,  373 
special,  373 
regulations  covering  laying  and 

ventilation  of,  300 
Solid  culture  media,  406 
Source  of  water,  to  determine,  21 1 
South  Carolina,  climate  of.  264 
Spaltpil/e,  ^o 

Spanish  tiles  for  rooting,  305 
Special  hygiene,  o } 
Specifications  in' blank,  440 


>pirilli,  39 
Spirillum  cholera,  41 

ol  ii-l.ipsing  fever  in  Mi**),  4I.S 
Spirits,  i  74 
Spiro- bacteria,  39 
Spirochete,  39 

obermnieri,  45 

S|«>ngy  iron  as  a  tiller  l>e«i,  194 
Springfield,  Ma>s  ,  clim.itt  ol,  277 
Sprint;  water,  lSf> 
Stained  glass,  objections  to,  ;  ji> 
Staining,  histologic.  41  i 

( iram's  Method,  41  2 

l.ollkr's  Method,  413 

of  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis, 

4'.? 

of  bacteria,  412 
\Yeigei  t's        modification        of 

( iram's  method,  4  13, 
Stairs,  309 
Staphylococci,  36 
Steam  and  hot-water  heating,  324 
disinfection  by,  73 
heating,  325 
sterili/er,  7  } 

Arnold's,  73 
Stephanus  dentattis,  152 
Sterili/ed  foods,  170 

milk  for  infant  feeding,  83 
St.  John,  N.  1!.,  climate  of,  270 
Stomatitis,  parasitic,  microbic  cause  of,  46 
gangrenous,  miciobic  cause  "f, 

46 
ulcerative,    microbic    cause   of, 

46 

Stone,  life  estimates  of,  296 
por»ity  of,  205 
selection  of  for  building  purposes, 

295 

Storage  of  water,  1 8.8 
Stoves,  318 

be.st  foims  of,  320 
heat  production  of,  335 
method  by  which  they  he.it,  318 
objections  to.  ;  1 8 
with  Ire-h  air  line-,  310 
S-traps.  };4 
Stratus  clouds.  256 
Street  Hushing,  377 

quantity     of     water      de- 
manded. 3~S 

Strepto-bacillus  ot   ty:>-ui>  u-vir,  48 
Streptococci,  ;8 
Stre)  tococcus  ei  ysij>i  Luis.  42 

staining  of.  4  ^3 
jivogenes.  42 
Strongylus  til.u  ia.  140 

nuKiiini-,  I  ID 
paradoxicu-,  14.1 


454 


INDEX. 


Sturdy,  149 

Sub-irrigation,   see    Intermittent  upward 

filtration  of  sewage 
Subsidence  in  water  purification,  194 
Subsoil  drainage,  282 
Sudden  changes  of  temperature,  diseases 

due  to,  240 
Sulphate  of  copper  as  a  disinfectant,  67 

iron  as  a  disinfectant,  67 
Sulphur  for  di>infecuon,  how  used,  71 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  air,  230 
Sulphurous  acid  as  a  disinfectant,  71 

methods    for   generating, 

71 

Suppuration,  microbic  cause  of,  46 
Surface  water,  186 
Susceptibility,  inherited,  27 
Suspended  matter  in  air,  233 
Sweating    sickness,   microbic    cause    of, 

48 

Sweet  potato,  164 
Syphilis,  microbic  cause  of  46 

staining  of  the  bacillus  of,  433 


T. 


Tanks    for     (lushing    water-closets,    see 

Flushing  tanks 

Tanks  in  house,  dangers  of,  380 
Tea,  171 

physiological  action,  171 
Technic,  398 
Teeth,  care  of,  94 
Temperament,  as  a  predisposing  element 

in  the  causation  of  disease,  28 
Temperature,   estimation  of  in    climate, 

241 

mean    of    day,   how    ob- 
tained, 243 
Tenia  ccenurus,  149 

mediocanellata,  51,  425 
solium,  52,  150,  425 
Tennessee,  climate  of,  267 
Terra  cotta  pipes,  method  of   laying  and 

joining,  365 
Tetanus,  bacillus  of,  46 

prevention  of,  62 
Tetracocctis,  37 
Texas,  climate  of,  261 

fever,  139 
Thermal  disinfection,  438 

""it,  334 
Thermometer,  dry  bulb,  245 

comparative   value  of  dif- 
ferent standards,  437 
maximum,  242 
minimum,  242 
wet  bulb,  245 
Theimoscope,  243 


Thread-worms,  50 
Thrush,  35,  430 

microbic  cause  of,  46 
prevention  of,  62 
Time  valve,  350 

Tinea  versicolor,  microbic  cause  of/47 
Tinned  foods,  adulteration  of,  169 
Tin  roofs,  304 
Tissue,  transmission  of,  27 
To  determine  the  source  of  water,  21 1 
Traps,  353 

anti-siphonage  vents,  369 
location  of,  369 
Treads  of  stairs,  309 
Trematodes,  49 
Trichiniasis,  151 
Trichina;  spiralis,  51,  150 

in   meat,  detection   of, 

428 

Trichomonas  intestinalis  in  feces,  424 
Tricocephalus  dispar,  51 
Tricophyton  tonsurans,  35 
Trough  closet,  346 
Tube  or  driven  wells,  187 
Tubercle,  minute  anatomy  of,  144 
Tuberculosis,  bacillus  of,  47 

staining  of,  413 
detection  of,  in  meat,  427 
due  to  telluric  conditions, 

286 
in  animals,  142 

organs     affected, 

142 

pathology  of,  143 
symptoms  of,  146 
lymphatic  glands,  142 
of  the  kidneys  in  animals, 

MS 

liver  in  animals,  144 

the  meninges  in  animals, 

145 

lungs     of      animals, 

physical  signs,  147 

udder,  symptoms  of, 

146 
pulmonalis,   prevention   of, 

63 
transmission  of,  153 

Turnips,  162 

Turnsick,  149 

Typhoid  bacillus  in  feces,  422 

fever,  see  Fever,  Typhoid 
Typhus,  contagious,  134 
Tyrotoxicon,  49,  1 10 


U. 


Under-fed  fires,  316 
|    Urinals,  347 


INDKX. 


455 


Urinals,  selection  of,  selling  of,  objections 

t<>,  347 

Utah,  climate  of,  268 
Utilization  of  sewage,  392 


V. 

Vaccination,  65 
Vaccinia,  microbes  in,  48 
Valve  closets,  342 
Varicella,  microbic  cause  of,  41 

prevention  of,  59 
Variola,  microlnc  cause  of,  48 

prevention  of,  64 
Varioloid,  prevention  of,  64 
Veal,  129 

Vegetable  foods,  162 
Ventilating  currents,  methods  of  estimat- 

'"g.  336 

gas  fixtures,  340 
Ventilation,  309 

factors  in,  310 
ideal  supply  of  air,  313 
maximum   of   carbonic   acid 
4  impurity,  313 

methods     by    which     it     is 

secured,  313 
of     water-closet    containers, 

370 

purity  of  air  used,  31 1 
quantity  to  be  supplied  each 

individual,  313 
selection  of  air  inlet,  311 
windows    and     doors    as    a 

means,  313 
Vernier  on  barometers,  246 


W. 

Wall  papers,  arsenic  in,  234 
Walls,  299 

damp-proof  course  in,  301 
inspection  of,  384 
methods  of  bonding,  300 
regulations    covering    their    con- 
struction, 300 
Warren's  cannula,  426 
Wash-down  closet,  344 
Washington,  climate  of,  260 
Waste  system,  372 
Water,  185 

amount    derivable    from    rainfall, 

185 
causing  boils,  193 

cholera,  192 
cystic  calculi,  193 
goiter,  10 } 


Water  causing  malaria,  192 

parasitic  ditrnv*,  p,  .; 
ptomaine    |M>isoniiig,  10,$ 
typhoid  lever.  192 
yellow  fever,  19  j 
Collection  fir  examination,  200 
diseases  due  to  impure,  192 
distillation  of,  199 
domestic  filtration,  196 
examination,  200 

chlorin,  202 
color  and  transpar- 
ency, 201 
nitrate.s,  205 
nitrites,  205 
odor,  20 1 

organic  matter,  202 
poisonous      metals, 

206 

test   for  ammonium 
compounds,  20 ; 
total  solids,  202 
tillers,  194 

filtration  for  purification,  104 
Water,  methods  of  distribution,  189 

microscopic  examination  of,  209 
quantity  demanded,  190 

for  street  ilush- 

'»£-  37's 

sources  of,  185,  211 
storage  of,  iS8 

subsidence  for  purification,  194 
supply,  dangers  arising  from,  190 

impure,  1 1) I 

Water-back  fireplaces,  317 
Waterbury,  Connecticut,  climate  of,  277 
Water-closet,  Dececo,  344 

Duckett's  pattern,  352 
enclosed,  342 
'•  Improved  Sypho."  345 
Long-hopper  variety,  342 
systems,  340 
trough  closet,  346 
valve  variety,  342 
"  wash-down,"   ^44 
whirlpool  closet,  344 
Allen's  design,  55  5 
essentials  of  a  properly  con- 
structed closet,  341 
location   of.  370 
selection  o;,  340 
Weaning  of  infants,  S4 
Weed,  142 
Weir  gauge,  187 
Well  water,  187 
Wells,  inspection  of.  370 
Wlnley  destructor.  388 
Whirlpool  closet.  344 
Whooping  Cough,  micro!. ic  c.ui-e  of,  4S 
prevention   of,  <  4 


456 


JNDEX 


Wind,  253 

vane,  254 

Window-space,  amount  necessary,  339 
Wines,  175 
Wiped  joints,  361, 
Wisconsin,  climate  of,  263 
Wooden  tongue,  135 
Wool,  99,  100 
Wool-sorter's  disease,  see  Anthrax. 


Y. 

Yam,  164 
Yeasts,  35 
Yellow  fever,  microbic  cause  of,  48 

Z. 

Zinc  chlorid  as  a  disinfectant,  67 
in  water,  test  for,  207 
roofs,  304 


A    001  357148    4 


